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Architect’s Pocket BookThis Page Intentionally Left BlankArchitect’s Pocket BookCharlotte Baden-PowellSecond editionOXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARISSAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYOArchitectural PressArchitectural PressAn imprint of Elsevier ScienceLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803First published 1997Reprinted 1998, 1999Second Edition 2001Reprinted with amendments 2002 and 2003Copyright © 2001, Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reservedNo part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishersEvery care has been taken in the preparation of this book but neither the author nor thepublishers can be held responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any results arisingfrom such errors or omissions by any person or body using this bookBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication DataBaden-Powell, Charlotte, Architect’s pocket book – 2nd ed. 1. ArchitectureI. Title720Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataBaden-Powell, Charlotte,Architect’s pocket book/Charlotte Baden-Powell – [2nd ed.]. p. cm.Includes indexISBN 0 7506 4764 71. Architecture – Great Britain – Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. TitleNA 2590 B3 2001721’.02’1 – dc21ISBN 0 7506 4764 7For information on all Architectural Press publications visit our website at www.architecturalpress.comComposition by Tek-Art, Croydon, SurreyPrinted and bound in Great BritainContentsPreface viiAcknowledgements ix1 General InformationClimate maps 1Metric system 8Metric units 10Temperature 11Imperial units 12Conversion factors 14Greek alphabet 17Geometric data 18Paper sizes 24Drawing conventions 28Perspective drawing 32CI/SfB Construction Index 34Uniclass 402 PlanningPlanning and other permissions 41Building Regulations 1991 52Standards – in the construction industry 56Sustainability, energy saving and green issues 59Anthropometric data 64Furniture and fittings data 68Miscellaneous data 78Sanitary provision for public buildings 82Trees for towns 86Hedges 883 StructuresWeights of materials 89Newtons 93Imposed loads 94Fire resistance 99Bending moments and beam formulae 100Safe loads on subsoils 102Timber 103Brickwork and blockwork 106Concrete 108Steelwork 1124 ServicesDrainage 119Rainwater disposal 122Water supply regulations 123Water storage 127U-, R- and K- values 130Thermal insulation 132Heat losses 134Central heating and hot water systems 136Ventilation 138Electrical installation 144Lighting 147Sound 1645 Building ElementsStairs and gradients 167Fireplaces 170Chimneys and flues 172Doors 174Windows 180Security fittings 1886 MaterialsBrickwork and blockwork 191Stonework 200Dampness in buildings 204Plaster and render 205Metals 211Roofing 214Glass 237Timber 250Building boards 269Plastics 276Nails and screws 278Paints 280Addresses 287Sources 297Index 300vi ContentsPreface‘I know it’s somewhere – but where?’ . . .. . . any architect, any timeThe inspiration for this pocket book was the front section ofthe Building Technician’s Diaries which were published in the1960s and 70s. These small airmail paper pages were denselypacked with useful information for the architect, surveyor andbuilder. Obviously concise, often rule-of-thumb butnevertheless marvellously useful. These diaries are no longeravailable and are of course wildly out of date. So it seemed tome that there is a need for a new small and more completecompendium which can sit beside the drawingboard/computer and also be carried easily to site.It is aimed primarily at the smaller practice and is particularlysuitable for small works. The subjects range from generalarithmetic and geometric data through building regulationrequirements, the sizes of furniture, fittings, joists, materials,U-values, lighting data and much more.The choice of what to include is necessarily subjective and isthe result of running my own practice for 38 years. Thesubjects have been gleaned either from much morecomprehensive works and the more imaginative and usefulaspects of manufacturers’ literature. I have deliberately notincluded anything about costs or legal matters as thesechange too frequently for the book to be of any lasting value.The choice of contents is inevitably subjective and I would beinterested to hear from readers of any items which they wouldhave liked to be included. The blank pages at the end of thebook are provided for personal additions.Every effort has been made to ensure that the informationgiven is accurate at the time of publication. When compilingthe book I found many things were incomplete, out-of-date orplainly wrong. The user should be aware that the informationis concise, in order to suit the small size of a pocket book. Alsothat legislation is frequently changing and that the BritishStandards and Building Regulations are being constantlysuperseded. If in doubt, or further more detailed explanation isrequired, consult the source given at the bottom of the page,with the addresses and telephone numbers at the back of thebook. Where no reference is given, this is because I havecompiled the information from several sources.This book is not a construction manual, it contains no typicaldetail drawings, but is instead a collection of informationneeded before such drawings are prepared.The second edition contains 30 new pages of subjects rangingfrom Party Wall Awards and green issues to industrial processes.The new drawings include information about setting-upperspectives, wheelchairs, traditional doors and windows,colour spectrum, etc. Additions have also been made to theoriginal text. Names and addresses have been updated andemail and websites added.The aim of the book is to included information from a widerange of sources. Facts which one knows are somewhere -but where? I like to think that this is the book I should havehad to hand, both as a student and while running my privatepractice. I hope you do too.viii PrefaceAcknowledgementsI am greatly indebted to the following people for their helpand advice:Choice of contents John Winter (architect)Bill Ungless (architect)Geometric data Francis Baden-Powell (architect)Structural data Howard Hufford (structural engineer)David Cook (geotechnical engineer)Water byelaws Graham Mays (Water ResearchCentre secretary)Electrical wiring Brian Fisher (electrical contractor)Lighting Martin Wilkinson (lighting consultant)Joinery James Toner (building contractor)General reference data Peter Gunning (quantity surveyor)Typography Peter Brawne (graphic designer)I should also like to thank the many helpful technicalrepresentatives of the manufacturers listed at the back of thebook.My thanks are also due to:Mari Owen, my secretary, for so patiently struggling withtyping, re-typing and endlessly correcting a difficult text;Neil Warnock-Smith, my Publisher, for his support andenthusiasm for the original idea for the book;Michael Brawne, Professor of Architecture and my husband,for his wise words, help and encouragement throughout.This Page Intentionally Left Blank1General InformationClimate mapsManchesterOxfordPlymouthCarlisleNorwichLondon46464848484850505252545456564646444442424038BirminghamAberystwything faulty ball valves to cisterns.Planning 61Landscaping might incorporate green corridors, to encour-age birds and animals, through which could pass footpathsand cycle paths along existing hedgerows and waterways.Avoid large areas of mown grass, which have low wildlifevalue and are labour intensive to maintain. Shelter belts provide windbreaks and lessen noise, althoughcare must be taken not to obscure south-facing glazing andsolar collectors. Where possible, use grasscrete and gravel for minor roads todiscourage motor traffic. New housing developments need space for allotments, sportsfields, playgrounds and landscaped car parks.The use of water and tree planting can provide buffer zonesbetween housing and industry.New planting should incorporate as many drought-resistantplants as possible. Typical species are: cypress, corsican pines,juniper, box, myrtle, broom, santolina, cistus, rosemary andother silver-leaved shrubs.Where watering is necessary, irrigate with trickle hoses moni-tored by humidity sensors and time clocks. Isolated plants arebest watered by controlled-rate drippers, which direct waterstraight to the plant’s roots.Materials should ideally include those of low embodiedenergy, which is a term used to describe all the energy usedin their production and transportation.Where possible, use local materials to reduce pollution fromtransport.Materials should be non-toxic and offer minimum emissionsof formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and sol-vent vapours. Avoid materials that produce static.TIMBER should be supplied by a Forest Stewardship Council(FSC) accredited source. See p. 250.TIMBER TREATMENTS, unless water-based, are a source ofVOCs. Pre-treatment of timber as opposed to on-site treat-62 Architect’s Pocket Bookment is preferable, as tighter controls are possible under fac-tory conditions.MDF should be low or zero-formaldehyde.PVC is manufactured using toxic chemicals. Disposing of PVCby fire produces dioxins, some of the most toxic chemicalsknown. It is used in a vast range of building materials, fromwindow frames to piping. Wherever possible, specify someless hazardous material.FLOORING comes in many renewable forms, which may bepreferable to synthetic materials; these include rubber, coir,wool, cork, linoleum (hessian and linseed oil) and recycledtyres. Reclaimed timber or FSC-accredited timber make attrac-tive and durable floor finishes.PAINTS should be low odour, solvent-free and water based.WALLPAPERS can be made from recycled packaging or pulpfrom managed forests. Vinyl papers may contain toxic VOCsand solvent-based inks and preservatives.Sources: Building for Energy EfficiencyBuilding a Sustainable FutureLighting for people, energy efficiency and architectureTomorrow’s WorldWater Conservation in BusinessPlanning 6364 Architect’s Pocket BookAnthropometric dataDimensions given are the average for British men and women. They include anallowance for clothing and shoes.hipsStandingupward reach +2120 +1970top of head +1740 +1650eye level +1635 +1545shoulder height +1430 +1355knuckle height +0770 +0740floor �0000 �0000MEN WOMENshoulder widthmen 460women 405men 370women 400sideways reachmen 885women 820c/lPlanning 65from buttocksto back of calffrom buttocksto front of kneeDimensions given are the average for British men and women. They include anallowance for clothing and shoes.extended legforward reachmen 850women 780men 480women 470men 615women 570men 1090women 965top of head +1340 +1280eye level +1220 +1170shoulder height +1040 +0985u/s elbow +0665 +0650top of thigh +0590 +0590average seat height +0440 +0440floor �0000 �0000SittingMEN WOMEN66 Architect’s Pocket Bookreach over high tablemen 600women 5501075Circulation630465Turning circle ∅ mmlarge chair 1700standard chair 1500indoor chair 14001800twoself propelledwheelchairstwowheelchairswithattendantsonewheelchairwithattendantNBMinimumdimensions of landings to be clearof door swingsoneself propelledwheelchair1700LIFT suitable for a wheelchair userCar of at least 1100 wide × 1400 long internallyClear landing area of 1500 × 1500Clear door opening of 800Lift controls set between +900 and +1200 hand set at least 300 mm in from front wall inside car1100800150015001400300+ 0965 top of chair+0710 top of arm rest+0560 top of wheel+0000 floorWheelchairsMEN WOMENhigh reach +1715 +1575oblique reach +1595 +1465forward reach +1410 +1295head height +1330 +1255eye level +1220 +1155shoulder +1035 +0990elbow +0690 +0690thigh +0605 +0605seat +0485 +0475knuckle +0380 +0420foot height +0145 +0165floor ±0000 ±00001200RAMPS100 min high kerbto open sidesmin width of ramp surface1000 clear of obstructions(900 clear for dwellings)1200min lengthbottom landingmax 5 m long ramp for1:12 slope which ismax permitted slopemax 10 m long rampfor 1:15 slopemin lengthintermediatelandingsmin lengthtop landing1500 1200non-slip surface ↓(760 min)900800Planning 67Wheelchair accessEntrance lobbies & corridors – not in dwellingsDWELLINGSNOTE; Part M of the Building Regulations applies only to NEW DWELLINGS, not to existing dwellings nor extensions toexisting dwellings.Means of EscapeSee Approved Document B of the Building Regulationsand BS 5588 : Part 8 : 1988Audience & Spectator SeatingSix wheelchair spaces or 1/100th of spectator seating whicheveris greater should be provided.Each space to be 1400 × 900 with unobstructed view and adjacent to seated companions. The space may be created byreadily removing seats for the occasion.NOTENo frameless glass doors. No revolving doorsunless very large as in airports. Door pulls andlever handles for easy opening. Any door closersto be adjusted to open with minimum force andclose slowly.ENTRANCE DOORS to have min clear opening 775 mmDOORWAYS in relation to CORRIDORS as table below:Doorway – clear opening mm Corridor – minimum width mm750 or wider 900 when approach head-on750 1200 when approach not head-on775 1050 when approach not head-on800 900 when approach not head-onA WC must be provided in the entrance storey of a dwelling – or the principal storey if there are no habitable rooms at theentrance level.This WC compartment must be min. 900 wide with an opening-out door and a clear space 750 deep in front of the pan clear ofany wash basin. This WC may be part of a bathroom.ACCESS to dwellings not steeper than 1:20 orramps as shown on opposite page with droppedkerbs to any pavements.ELECTRICAL SWITCHES & SOCKETSHeight of switches, socket outlets, bell pushes,telephone jacks, TV aerial sockets etc to be pos-tioned between +0450 and +1200 above FFL.Sources:Approved Document M of the Building RegulationsMetric HandbookDesigning for Accessibilitymin clear opening for entrancedoors with min 300 clear spacealongside leading edge of doorminimum width forentrance lobbiesminimum clear spacebetween door swings300 8001500130010007501200minimum clear spacefor manoeuvring chairinto side doorwaysminimum clear opening forinternal doorsminimum unobstructedwidths for corridorsPrincipal entrance doors,doors in frequent use anddoors across circulationroutes should have glazedpanels at least betweenheights of +0900 and+1500 but preferably withthe u/s at +0450.+1500+0900Double doors to have at least one leaf with 800 mm clear openingNB:Minimum clear opening for doorways meansclear of door thickness, doorstops and any fulllength pull handle.In practice this requires a 1000 mm doorset toachieve a minimum 800 clear opening.80068 Architect’s Pocket BookFurniture and fittings dataLiving roomarmchair900two seater sofa15009502100threeseater sofa1300650600750 500500450750500750 1000750knee spacedesk and chairdistance betweendesk and wallneeded to get upand sit downcoffee tables – 400 h700+1340+0440�0000+0750 to1200Planning 69Living room – continued+13001500upright piano+700�0000+520�0000�0000+225054% of bookswill fit ontoshelves ofthese cleardimensions18%as above(3% may be larger)25%as abovetelevisionlongcase clockbookshelvesAUDIO-VISUAL AND MUSIC STORAGErecord sleeve = 315 � 315 � 3video tape box = 204 � 121 � 30compact disc box = 142 � 125 � 12cassette tape box = 110 � 70 � 16sheet music = 340 � 250 max page size5001551802554505502502403402652401450 to 1500900350650grand piano 970 hpiano stool1450 to 1800�0000+080070 Architect’s Pocket BookKitchentop of tall cabinetsu/s cooker hoodeye levelmaximum reachtop of low wall cupboardsu/s wall cupboardselectric socketsdrawer lineplinth heightFFLspace for pipework ➚ cabinet depth5305065worktoptop of appliances+2250 –+2000 –+1950 –+1650 –+1600 –+1350 –+1100 –+0900 –+0850 –+0740 –�0000 –+0150 –to – 0100 –standard worktop600300 to 350900walkingwith traywalking betweenwall and countersqueezingbetween walland counter650450dishwasher11501200minumumspace betweencountersSPACE needed in front ofappliances under worktopKITCHEN TRIANGLETo achieve a compact yet workable kitchen thetriangle formed by lines linking sink to cooker andrefrigerator should total between 3.6 m and 6.6 mlong with a maximum of 7.0 m. Avoid circulationthrough the triangle – particularly between sink andcooker which should not be more than 1.8m apart.Allow a minimum 400 mm between hob and sinkand any tall cupboards for elbow room.Cooker should not be positioned near door or infront of window.Keep electric sockets well away from sink area.Provide lighting over worktops.Install extractor fan over hob.8007001100low level oven➝ ➝Planning 71600 tall cupboard/appliance housing500 tall cupboard300 tall cupboard600 cupboard/appliance housing1000 cupboard/sink base/ corner cupboard900 cornercupboard800 cupboard/sink base300cooker – freestanding hob under worktopsingle oven/dishwasher/larder fridge etcbuilt-indouble oven600600570900 600580500600850600900mediumrefrigeratorfridge/freezerbuilt-infridge/freezer500850600146060017506001800500330450400 5001000 1000 1000 1200 1500 15005001200CABINETS width dimensionsAPPLIANCESInset sink unitsfreestandingmicrowavebuilt inmicrowavesmallrefrigeratorwall cupboards72 Architect’s Pocket BookDining room9002600table for 109001950table for 811002200table for 101200table for 6 to 79001500table for 61300750table for 41100table for 4900900table for 4750table for 2900650table for 2750Planning 73+ 1340 top of man’s head+ 1200 eye level+ 1000 chair back+ 0740 table top+ 0440 seat550sitting space1500450450350bar stool450dining chair740sideboard 900 mm h450foot space(650 wide perplace setting)750minimum space neededto get up and sit down� 0000 FFL74 Architect’s Pocket BookBedroomdouble bedscot – 1000 h� 0000 FFL+ 0550 top of mattress+ 1000 bedhead+ 1400 head room180015001350 900650550450450SPACE round bedsminimum spacebetween beds withroom for small tableminimum space needed at sidesand ends for making bed – ideally should be 700 mm1250bedside table450600450750190019002000single bedsPlanning 75chest of drawers – 900 hwardrobe – 1700 to 2100 h100050010001000600600Short clothes hanging spaceHANGING CLOTHES – average space requirementsBOOTS and SHOES size overall per pairmen’s Wellington boots 330 � 240 � 430 hmen’s walking shoes 330 � 240 � 120 hwomen’s high heeled shoes 280 � 180 � 150 hwomen’s flat shoes 280 � 180 � 90 hc/l rail+ c/l rail600shirtsjacketsskirtsfolded trousersblousesjacketsskirtsovercoatsdressesdressing gown, long dressesdressing gowns, overcoats300 600 500 300MEN900WOMEN1400– 1000– 1200– 1400– 1600c/l rail5001600blanketand hatspacea rail at thisheight willaccommodatethe longest garment whileleaving spaceunder shorterclothes forshoesLong clothes hanging space120060076 Architect’s Pocket BookBathroom800long180070015007301100700standardshort8001000900900750750800800700minimumaccess+2200 min. ceiling+2100 top of shower rail+1150 c/l mixer+0530 top of bath+0140 bottom of bath�0000 FFL700minimumaccess+2200 min. ceiling+2100 top of shower rail+1250 c/l mixer+1050 grab rail+0150 top of tray�0000 FFLsitz1700BATHSHOWERPlanning 77+1900 min. height atfront of basin+1600 eye level+0850 basin top5604204007002150900720520800530150�510740720450330530680500400300170→60400500�0000 FFLBASIN600minimumaccessBIDET700minimumaccess+2000 min. ceiling+1900 min. height atfront of pan+1500 min. height atback of pan+0400 average pan height�0000 FFL600minimumaccessWCURINAL500minimumaccess330670+1320 screen+0710 u/s screen+0610 rim±0000 FFL+0510 rim forboys700minimumaccess700centres78 Architect’s Pocket BookMiscellaneous dataLaundry600washing machine and dryerCleaning and Fuelironing boardbroomfuel bunker 508 kg (10cwt) 4 step laddervacuum cleaner dustbinspin dryer580 700650 840400� 1508501720700minimumaccess40030035013004009708201550350135035010007005508001350400Planning 79Hall and shedGardenperambulatorbicycle120010705601400deckchair900550chest freezer8606751100700 1800620600120016501450560wheelbarrowgrass rake rake1000spade & fork9503601300lawnmowerwine rack230330 440330meter box550240 45080 Architect’s Pocket BookDomestic garages 24001600 600 �minimum toget out of car2001502850330060505020clear opening for4878 (16�0�) w door and frameworkbench1700 950 �allows for mostdoors to open fullystandard garagedoor heights are1981 (6�6�) and2134 (7�0�)overhead beamfor stirrup grip�2002004900520030006000800min2001502120clear opening for1981 (6�6�) wdoor & frameaveragecar size 4000 � 16002275clear opening for2134 (7�0�) wdoor & framefamily saloon 4500 � 1700familysaloonfamilysaloonminiaveragesized car4300SINGLE GARAGE minimum sizeSINGLE GARAGE for family saloonSINGLE GARAGE for wheelchair user4400clear opening for4267 (14�0�) w door and frame4900490044004700Planning 81Vehicle sizes and parking bayVEHICLE l w* h radiuswheelchair – standard 1075 630* 965 1500bicycle 1800 560* 1070 –motor bicycle 2250 600* 800 –small car (Mini) 3050 1400* 1350 4800average sized car 4000 1600* 1350 5250family saloon 4500 1700* 1460 5500caravan – average touring 4500 2100* 2500 –Rolls Royce 5350 1900* 1670 6350hearse 5900 2000* 1900 –skip lorry 7000 2500* 3350 8700dustcart – medium capacity 7400 2290* 4000 7000fire engine – medium size 8000 2290* 4000 7600pantechnicon 11000 2500* 4230 10 050Radii should not necessarily be considered asturning circles. Turning circles depend uponthe speed the vehicle is travelling, the hand of the driver (left hand differs from right), andoverhang, particularly at front and back of vehicle. Allow 1.2m clear space both sides ofcarriageway to accommodate overhang.*widths exclude wing mirrors which may add 600 to 800 mm to the body widthBicycle parking2051100Up/down parkingwith ramps for parking alternate cyclesat a higher level90° parking @ minimum 310 mm centres45° parking @ minimum 450 mm centresSource: Autopa Ltd Same level parking 45°Same level parking 90°610min.610min.610min.610min.19051440+ 0690 topholder+ 0470 bottomholder+ 0250 ramp± 0000 FFLPARKING BAYThe standard parking bay is2400 × 4800 which willaccommodate mostEuropean cars. 2800 × 5800 will accommo-date American and otherlarge cars.82 Architect’s Pocket BookSanitary provision for public buildingsSummary of minimum facilitiesThere should be separate facilities for men and women.Generally washbasins should be provided in equal numbers toWCs with one for every five urinals.In most public buildings, a minimum of two WCs should beprovided so that one may act as a reserve if the other is out oforder.At least one WC should be designed for disabled people seepages 62 and 63.Offices and shopsNo. of persons No. of WCs and basinsUp to 15 116–30 231–50 351–75 476–100 5over 100 1 extra for each additional 25There is no specific requirement for urinals, but if providedmen’s facilities may be reduced to:No. of persons No. of WCs and basinsUp to 20 121–45 246–75 376–100 4over 100 1 extra for each additional 25FactoriesWCs 1 per 25 personsUrinals No specific requirementBasins 1 per 20 persons for clean processes1 per 10 persons for dirty processes1 per 5 persons for injurious processesRestaurantsMen WomenWCs Up to 400: 1 per 100 Up to 200: 2 per 100Over 400: 1 extra for each Over 200: 1 extra for eachadditional 250 or additional 100 orpart thereof part thereofUrinals 1 per 25 personsBasins 1 per WC and 1 per 5 urinals 1 per 2 WCsConcert halls, theatres and similar buildings for public entertainmentMen WomenWCs Up to 250: 1 Up to 50: 2Over 250: 1 extra for each 50–100: 3additional 500 or Over 100: 1 extra for eachpart thereof additional 40 orpart thereofUrinals Up to 100: 2Over 100: 1 extra for eachadditional 80 orpart thereofCinemasMen WomenWCs Up to 250: 1 Up to 75: 2Over 250: 1 extra for each 76–100: 3additional 500 or Over 100: 1 extra for eachpart thereof additional 80 orpart thereofUrinals Up to 200: 2Over 200: 1 extra for eachadditional 100 orpart thereofPlanning 8384 Architect’s Pocket BookWC compartments for disabled peopleWheelchair user+1400 top vertical rail+0480 pan height�0000 FFL+0800 bottom vertical rail+0750 top of basin and c/l horizontal railsThese arrangementsshow the minimumprovision that willcomply with theApproved DocumentM of the BuildingRegulations1992 edition250700 to 7502100�hingedsupport railmirrorlever handle �pull rail �support rails to be 35 mm ømirror size900 h � 400 w fixedwith u/s at 900 above FFL4001000single leafdoorset5001500150�150��100�50600frontal transfer to WC at the basin1400 600950750600800minsideways transfer to WCPlanning 85SECTIONPLANAmbulant disabled user+1350 top vertical rail�0000 FFL+0750 bottom vertical rail+0700 c/l horizontal rails+0480 pan heightNote that this arrangement presupposes a wash handbasinelsewhere4008005001500(1700)(if door opening in)wc height950900480Source: Pressalit Ltdbasin height86 Architect’s Pocket BookTrees for townsName Ht m Ht m Loca- Description25 yrs mature tionAcacia – false 14 21 S Open headed, rugged bark, thorny twigs.Robinia Ornamental and very drought and pollutionpseudoacacia tolerantAilanthus 18 21 S Fast growing, imposing, with ash-like leaves.Altissima Female trees produce spectacular red fruit.(tree of heaven) Tolerant of industrial pollutionAlmond 7 8 S Pink or white flowers early spring, before darkPrunus dulcis green finely-toothed leaves and velvety greenfruitBirch – Himalayan 10 18 R Vivid white bark, very strong upright stem.Betula utilis Forms a striking avenue. Casts only light jaquemontii shadeCatalpa 10 12 P Wide, domed crown, heart- shaped leaves,Bignonioides white flowers July, with beans in hot weather. (Indian bean) Avoid cold/exposed sites. Good specimen treeCherry – gean* 12 15 S One of the loveliest cherries, hardy, invariablyPrunus avium producing masses of pure white drooping ‘Plena’ double flowersCherry – bird* 7 14 S Upright form of native ‘bird cherry’. RacemesPrunus padus of white flowers in May, ideal for street ‘Albertii’ plantingChestnut – red 7 12 A Slow growing, compact form with deepAesculus x carnea crimson flowers in June. Especially suitable for‘Briottii’ streets and avenuesCrab apple – 5 9 S Arching branches with early crimson flowersMalus opening to white. Popular in streets and floribunda gardens. Scab and mildew-resistantCrab apple 6 12 S Strong growing conical habit, good forMalus narrow streets. Flowers tinged pink. Excellent tschonoskii autumn colourHawthorn (May) 6 8 S Dense headed, with long glossy dark greenCrataegus x leaves until December. Orange fruit persisting lavellei until JanuaryLime – silver 10 18 R Pyramidal dense habit, with large dark green Tilia tomentosa leaves with white felted undersides. Aphid-free,so no drips – good for car-parking areasMaidenhair 7 30 P Slow growing superb specimen tree, pale green,Ginko biloba small, fan-shaped leaves turning yellow inautumn. Pollution-tolerantMaple – field* 7 10 S Neat form with dominant central leader andAcer campestre balanced crown. Brilliant autumn colour,‘Streetwise’ very hardyMaple – silver 15 25 R Fast growing with pale green deeply cut leavesAcer saccarinum turning clear yellow in autumn. Good for wide ‘Laciniatum’ roadsides. Not for windy sitesPlanning 87Trees for towns (continued)Name Ht m Ht m Loca- Description25 yrs mature tionMountain ash* 7 8 S Strong growing with neat upright habit.Sorbus Abundant bright orange berries in autumn.aucuparia Good for street planting in grass vergesOak – evergreen 7 28 P Slow growing, broad-leaved Quercus ilex evergreen specimen tree for parks. Good for (Holm oak) coastal regions but not for coldest inland areasOak – scarlet 15 18 P Superb tree for large parks, with shiny darkQuercus coccinea green leaves. Spectacular crimson leaf colour in‘Splendens’ autumn. Requires lime-free soilPlane – London 12 28 S Large, fast growing with boldly lobed leavesPlatanus x and flaking bark. Good street tree, tolerant of hispanica atmospheric pollutionSycamore 12 25 R Fast growing. Wide-headed tree. Good forAcer quick shelter in difficult situations and maritimepseudoplatanus sites. Tolerant of pollutionTulip tree 12 30 A Fast growing, three-lobed leaves turning butterLiriodendron yellow. Good for avenues. Green/white July tulipifera flowers on mature trees. Smoke-tolerantWhitebeam* 7 12 S Handsome round head, large bright greenSorbus aria leaves with vivid white undersides. Very hardy ‘Majestica’ and smoke-resistant* = native treeA = avenueP = parkR = roadsideS = streetTrees listed above are recommended for various urbansituations. Other varieties may be equally suitable, but checkthat they do not have invasive root runs, surface roots, brittlebranches or cannot tolerate pollution.All the trees listed, except the evergreen oak, are deciduous.Conifers are generally too large for most urban situations, andvery few can cope with atmospheric pollution.Sources: The Hillier Designer’s Guide to Landscape PlantsTree PlantingYear 197388 Architect’s Pocket BookHedgesName Leaves Flowers Growth Prune Site DescriptionBeech* D – fast Aug W, C Pale green leaves in spring turning to Fagus silvatica rich copper, persisting through winterBerberis E ❀ fast July Sh Shiny dark green prickly foliage, Berberis orange flowers in May followed by darwinii blue berriesBox – common* E – slow Aug– Sh Bushy shrub with glossy dark greenBuxus Sep leaves. Use the variety ‘Suffruticosa’ sempervirens for dwarf edgingCotoneaster SE ❀ medium Feb– Sh Leathery deep green leaves, smallCotoneaster Aug white flowers in June and persistent sinosii red berries in autumnEleagnus E – fast April W, Leathery leaves with bright gold Eleagnus pungens Sh splash on slightly prickly twigs making ‘Maculata’ dense hedgeEscallonia E ❀ medium Oct St, Glossy dark green leaves and crimsonEscallonia W flowers June–Oct. Good for seaside. ‘C. F. Ball’ Not for cold areas.Firethorn SE ❀ fast May– Sh Dense prickly stems, clusters of smallPyracantha July white flowers in June and bright red ‘Watereri’ fruits in autumnHawthorn (May)* D ❀ fast July– W, Very thorny, white or pink blossomCrataegus Mar Wet with small red haws in autumnmonogynaHolly* E – slow Aug Sh, W Very dense prickly dark green leaves, Ilex aquifolium bright red berries if both male andfemale plants adjacentHornbeam* D – medium Aug Wet, Similar to beech, retaining copperyCarpinus betulus Sh leaves in winter. Good for frostpockets and pleachingLaurel E ❀ medium Aug W, Sh Large leathery glossy green leaves,Prunus long white flower spikes in April if laurocerasus buds not prunedPhotinia E – medium Mar – Brilliant red new growth persistingP. x fraserii until summer, reverting to dark green ‘Red Robin’ in winterPrivet SE – fast as nec. Sh Dense hedge with medium-sizedLigustrum green leaves, clusters of creamy white ovalifolium flowers in JulyYew* E – slow Aug W, Very hardy, dense dark green needlesTaxus baccata C, Sh with bright red fruits attractive to birds* = native species; E = evergreen; D = deciduous; SE = semi-evergreen; W = wind resistant; C = will grow on chalk; Sh = will tolerate shade; St = will tolerate salt-laden winds.Sources: Buckingham Nurseries Hedging catalogueThe Right Hedge for You3StructuresWeights of materialsMaterial DescriptionQuantitykg/m2 kg/m3of unitaluminium cast 2 770aluminium roofing longstrip 0.8 mm 3.70asphalt roofing with vapour barrier 20 mm 47.00ballast loose, graded 1 600bituminous felt 3 layers + vapour 11.10roofing barrierblockboard sheet 18 mm 10.50blockwork high strength 100 mm 220.00aerated 100 mm 64.00lightweight 100 mm 58.00foundation 255 mm 197.00brass cast 8 425brickwork blue 115 mm 276.60 2 405engineering 115 mm 250.00 2 165sand/cement 115 mm 240.00 2 085London stock 115 mm 212.00 1 845fletton 1 795calcium silicate board sheet 6 mm 5.80cement 1 440concrete reinforced 2% steel 2 400plain 2 300chalk 2 125chipboard flooring grade C4 18 mm 13.25furniture grade C1A 18 mm 11.75chippings flat roof finish 1 layer 4.75clay undisturbed 1 925copper cast 8 730copper roofing longstrip 0.6 mm 5.70cork granulated 80cork insulation board 50 mm 6.50cork flooring tiles 3.2 mm 3.00felt roofing underlay 1.3090 Architect’s Pocket BookWeights of materials – continuedMaterial DescriptionQuantitykg/m2 kg/m3of unitglass clear float 4 mm 10.00clear float 6 mm 15.00clear float 10 mm 25.00glass wool quilt 100 mm 1.02gravel loose 1 600hardboard standard 3.2 mm 2.35hardboard medium 6.4 mm 3.70hardwood greenheart 1 040oak 720iroko, teak 660mahogany 530hardwood flooring boards 23 mm 16.10iron cast 7 205lead cast 11 322sheet code 4 20.40sheet code 7 35.72lime lump 705quick 880linoleum sheet 3.2 mm 4.50MDF sheet 18 mm 13.80mortar lime 1 680partitions plastered brick 115 + 25 mm 250.00plastered block 100 + 25 mm 190.00p/b & skim ontimber studs 100 + 25 mm 120.00parquet flooring 15 mm 7.00paving concrete 50 mm 122.00patent glazing alum.bars @ single 19.00600 mm c/calum.bars @ double 35.00600 mm c/cperspex corrugated sheets 4.90plaster lightweight – 2 coat 13 mm 10.20hardwall – 2 coat 13 mm 11.60lath and plaster 29.30plasterboard gyproc wallboard 9.5 mm 9.00plaster skimcoat 3 mm 2.20plywood sheet 6 mm 4.10polystyrene expanded, sheet 50 mm 0.75PVC roofing single ply membrane 2 mm 2.50Structures 91Material DescriptionQuantitykg/m2 kg/m3of unitquarry tiles laid in mortar 12.5 mm 32.00roofing tiles clay – plain 100 mmgauge 77.00clay – single pantile 315 mmgauge 42.00concrete – double roman 343 mmgauge 45.00concrete – flat slate 355 mmgauge 51.00rubber stud flooring tiles 4 mm 5.90sand dry 1 600sarking felt 1.30screed cement/sand 50 mm 108.00shingle coarse, graded, dry 1 842shingles roof, untreated 95 mm 8.09gaugetantalized “ 16.19slate slab 25 mm 70.80slate roofing best 4 mm 31.00medium strong 5 mm 35.00heavies 6 mm 40.00snow fresh 96wet, compact 320softboard sheet 12.5 mm 14.45softwood pitch pine, yew 670spruce 450western red cedar 390softwood flooring boards 22 mm 12.20soil loose 1 440compact 2 080stainless steel longstrip 0.4 mm 4.00roofingsteel mild 7 848sheet 1.3 mm 10.20stone slate 2 840marble 2 720granite 2 660York 2 400Bath 2 10092 Architect’s Pocket BookWeights of materials – continuedMaterial DescriptionQuantitykg/m2 kg/m3of unitstone chippings 1 760tarmac 25 mm 53.70thatch including battens 300 mm 41.50terrazzo paving 16 mm 34.20timber see hardwoodsoftwoodvinyl flooring tiles 2 mm 4.00water 1 000weatherboarding softwood 19 mm 7.3025 mm 8.55woodwool slabs 50 mm 36.60zinc cast 6 838zinc roofing longstrip 0.8 mm 5.70NewtonsThe unit of force, the newton, is derived from the unit ofmass through the relationship that force is equal to masstimes the gravitational pull of 9.81 metres per second per sec-ond (9.81 m/s2), in the direction of the force, e.g. 1 kilogram f = 9.81 newtons. For approximate purposes 100 kgf = 1 kN.Alternatively one newton is that force which, if applied to amass of one kilogram, gives that mass an acceleration of onemetre per second per second (1 m/s2) in the direction of theforce, so 1 N = 1 kg � 1 m/s2.When calculating the weight of materials for structures, thekilograms must be multiplied by 9.81 to get the equivalent fig-ure in newtons (or 9.81 ÷ 1000 for kN).As a general rule, the following expressions are used:superimposed loads kN/m2mass loads kg/m2 or kg/m3stress N/mm21 kN.m = 106.Nmm (often written 1 kNm = 106 Nmm)1 N/mm2 = 103 kN/m2Structures 93Imposed loadsImposed floor loads94 Architect’s Pocket BookDistributed ConcentratedFloor type load loadkN/m2 kNHouses and blocks of flats under four storeys 1.5 1.4Institutional bedrooms, stairs* in houses less than 1.5 1.8three storeysHotels bedrooms, hospital wards 2.0 1.8College and guest house dining rooms, lounges, 2.0 2.7billiard roomsOperating theatres, X-ray rooms, utility rooms 2.0 4.5Offices for general use 2.5 2.7Garages for vehicles under 2500 kg 2.5 9.0Classrooms, chapels 3.0 2.7Hotel kitchens and laundries, laboratories 3.0 4.5Offices with fixed computing equipment 3.5 4.5Assembly buildings with fixed seating 4.0 †Shop floors for retailing 4.0 3.6Corridors etc, footbridges subject to crowd loads 4.0 4.5Hotel bars 5.0 †Assembly buildings without fixed seating, gymnasia, 5.0 3.6dance hallsOffice filing and storage, corridors etc subject to 5.0 4.5wheeled trolleysFactories, workshops and similar buildings 5.0 4.5Garages, parking and workshops for vehicles 5.0 9.0exceeding 2500 kgBoiler rooms, plant rooms including weight of 7.5 4.5machineryBookstores, warehouses (per metre of storage height) 2.4 7.0Stationery stores (per metreof storage height) 4.0 9.0* Stairs in buildings over three storeys – same as floors to which they giveaccess.† Where no value is given for concentrated load, it is assumed that the distributed load is adequate for design purposes.Reduction in total distributed imposed floor loadStructures 95Number of floors including roof 1 2 3 4 5–10 10+carried by memberPercentage reduction in total 0 10 20 30 40 50distributed load on all floorscarried by memberArea supported m2 40 80 120 160 200 240Percentage reduction in total 0 5 10 15 20 25distributed imposed load** Where floor is designed for 5 kN/m2 or more, these reductions may betaken providing the loading assumed is not less than it would have been ifall the floors had been designed for 5 kN/m2 with no reductions.Imposed roof loadsWhere access is needed for cleaning and repair, these loadsassume spreader boards will be used during work on fragileroofs.For buildings in areas of high snowfall, snow loading shouldbe taken into consideration. The superimposed load would nor-mally be increased to 1 kN/m2 except for certain highland areasin Scotland where it might be increased to 1.25 kN/m296 Architect’s Pocket BookRoof type CommentsDistributed Concentratedload loadkN/m2 kNFlat roofs and sloping Where access is needed in 1.5 or 1.8*roofs up to 10° addition to that neededfor cleaning and repairFlat roofs and sloping Where no access is needed 0.6 or 0.9*roofs up to 30° except for cleaning and repairRoof slopes between Where no access is needed 0.6 or 0.9*0° and 60° except for cleaning andmeasured on plan repair Roof slopes 60° or more 0 0* Whichever produces the greater stress.Partial safety factorsIn design, each of the combinations (a) to (d) below should beconsidered and that giving the most severe conditions adopt-ed. Where alternative values are shown, select that producingthe most severe conditions.* Use 1.05 in the case of buildings used predominantly for storage or whereimposed load is of a permanent nature.Source: BS 5628 Part 1 : 1992Structures 97Loading Partial safety factor(a) design and design dead load 0.9 or 1.4imposed load design imposed load 1.6(b) dead and design dead load 0.9 or 1.4wind load design wind load 1.4 or 0.015 whichever greater(c) dead, imposed design dead load 1.2and wind load design imposed load 1.2design wind load 1.2 or 0.015 whichever greater(d) accidental design dead load 0.095 or 1.05damage design imposed load 0.35 or 1.05*design wind load 0.35Wind loads –simple calculationBS 6262 : 1982 CP describes a simple method of obtainingwind loads. This can be used for buildings less than 10 metresabove ground level and where the design wind speed is lessthan 52 metres per second (m/s). This method should not beused for cliff-top buildings.Find the basic wind speed from the map on p. 1. Multiply bya correction in Table 1 to get the design wind speed (m/s).Find the appropriate maximum wind loading from Table 2.Table 1: Correction factors for ground roughness andheight above ground98 Architect’s Pocket BookTable 2: Wind loading – probable maximumHeight above ground Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 43 m or less 0.83 0.72 0.64 0.565 m 0.88 0.79 0.70 0.6010 m 1.00 0.93 0.78 0.67Category 1 Open country with no obstructions. All coastal areas.Category 2 Open country with scattered wind breaks.Category 3 Country with many wind breaks, e.g. small towns, city outskirts.Category 4 Surfaces with large and frequent obstructions, e.g. city centres.Design wind speed Wind loading Design wind speed Wind loadingm/s N/m2 m/s N/m228 670 42 151030 770 44 166032 880 46 182034 990 48 192036 1110 50 215038 1240 52 232040 1370Structures 99Fire resistanceMinimum periods for elements of structure (minutes)Building type Basement storey Ground and upper storeysmore than less than less than less than less than more than10 m deep 10 m deep 5 m high 20 m high 30 m high 30 m highFlats and maisonettes 90 60 30a 60c 90b 120bHouses n/a 30a 30a 60 n/a n/aInstitutionald, residential 90 60 30a 60 90 120eOffices without sprinklers 90 60 30a 60 90 Xwith sprinklers 60 60 30a 30a 60 120eShops & without sprinklers 90 60 60 60 90 XCommercial with sprinklers 60 60 30a 60 60 120eAssembly & without sprinklers 90 60 60 60 90 XRecreational with sprinklers 60 60 30a 60 60 120eIndustrial without sprinklers 120 90 60 90 120 Xwith sprinklers 90 60 30a 60 60 120eStorage & otherwithout sprinklers 120 90 60 90 120 Xnon-residential with sprinklerss 90 60 30a 60 90 120eCar parks for open sided park n/a n/a 15f 15f 15f 60light vehicles any other park 90 60 30a 60 90 120eX = not permitteda Increased to 60 minutes for compartment walls separating buildings.b Reduced to 30 minutes for any floor within a maisonette, but not if thatfloor contributes to the support of the building.c As b above and, in the case of existing houses, of no more than threestoreys being converted into flats. This may be reduced to 30 minutesproviding the means of escape conform to section 2 of requirement B1.d Multi-storey hospitals should have a minimum 60 minutes standard.e Reduced to 90 minutes for elements not forming part of the structuralframe.f As a above and increased to 30 minutes for elements protecting themeans of escape.Source: Building Regulations Approved Document B - Table A2.Bending moments and beam formulaeBending moments and deflection formulae100 Architect’s Pocket BookType of beamFreely supportedwith central loadFreely supportedwith distributedloadFreely supportedwith triangularloadFixed both endswith central loadFixed both endswith distributedloadOne end fixed,the other endfreely supportedCantilever withend loadCantilever withdistributed loadMaximumdeflection ddc =WL348EIdc = 5WL3348EIdc = WL360EIdc = WL3192EIdc = WL3348EId = WL3185EIat x = 0.42 LdB = WL33EIdB = WL38EIMaximumshearWL2W2W2W2W2SA = 5W8SB = 3W8WWMaximumbendingmomentWL4WL8WL6WL8WL12WL8WLWL2Loading diagramW = total loadw = kN/mL = lengthE = modulus of elasticityI = moment of inertiaS = shear= point load= distributed load= free support= fixed supportWCLW = wLCWCCW = wLCW = wLxABWBW = wLBRectangular timber beam formula1 Obtain the imposed and deadloading for the beam.2 Select a strength class oftimber to define bendingstress (f).3 Choose breadth of beam.4 Calculate the maximumbending moment M in kNmM =WL8M = fZ, and Z =bd2 b = breadth of beam, mm6 d = depth of beam, mmf = flexural stress, N/mm2� M = fbd2or bd2 =6M L = clear span, m6 f M = bending moment, kNmW = total load, kNhence d =WL� 6� 106 Z = section modulus, mm3√ 8 � b � fStructures 101bdSafe loads on subsoilsPresumed allowable bearing values under static loadingNotes:1 These values are for preliminary design only. Foundations always requiresite investigation first.2 No values are given for very soft clays and silts; peat and organic soils;made-up or filled ground as presumably these would be thought unsuitable for any building.3 Values for Rocks assume that foundations are carried down to unweathered rock.4 Widths of foundations for Non-cohesive soils to be not less than onemetre.5 Cohesive soils are susceptible to long-term settlement.6 Generally foundations should not be less than 1.0 to 1.3 m depth toallow for soil swell or shrink, frost and vegetation attack.Source: BS 8004 : 1986102 Architect’s Pocket BookSubsoil Type BearingkN/m2Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in sound 10 000conditionStrong limestones and sandstones 4 000Schists and slates 3 000Strong shales, mudstones and siltstones 2 000Non- Densegravel, dense sand and gravel > 600cohesive Medium dense gravel, medium dense sand 300Medium dense sand 100 to 200Loose sandconditions Nominal cover (mm)Mild 25 20 20 20 20Moderate – 35 30 25 20Severe – – 40 30 25Very severe – – 50 40 30Extreme – – – 60 50Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45Minimum cement content kg/m3 275 300 325 350 400Lowest grade of concrete C 30 C 35 C 40 C 45 C 50Source: BS 5328 : 1980Concrete mixes for small works110 Architect’s Pocket BookUse Site mixed (proportions by volume) Ready-mixedGeneral Purpose 1 : 2 : 3 C 20 medium to highcement : sand : 20 mm aggregate OR workability1 : 2 : 4 20 mm maximumcement : sand : combined aggregates aggregateFoundations 1 : 21/2 : 3 C 7.5 high workabilityfootings, foundations cement : sand : 20 mm aggregate OR 20 mm maximumbases for precast paving 1 : 21/2 : 5 aggregatecement : sand : combined aggregatesPaving 1 : 11/2 : 21/2 special prescribed mix:exposed in situ paving cement : sand : 20 mm aggregate OR min. cement content and drives 1 : 11/2 : 31/2 330 kg/m3;(Use ready-mixed cement : sand : combined aggregates 5% entrained air;if possible) target slump 75 mmClear span Lintel depth Lintel depth No. ms Bar Min. bearing on Min. bearing onon brick on block bars ø brickwork blockworkmm mm mm mm mm mmup to 700 150 150 1 12 100 100700 to 1100 225 200 1 10 100 1501100 to 1300 225 200 1 12 100 1501300 to 1600 300 300 1 12 100 1501600 to 1900 300 300 2 10 150 2001900 to 2200 300 300 2 12 150 200Reinforced concrete lintels – precast, cast on site orcast in situNotes:1 These lintels are suitable for low rise buildings on 115 mm brick or 100 mm blockwalls.2 For 225 mm brick or 200 mm block walls, double the number of reinforcing bars.3 Seek advice for walls thicker than 225 mm or loads exceeding 10 kN/m.Source: British Cement AssociationPrestressed concrete lintels – safe loads (kg/m)Structures 111600 1 061 1 499 3 039 5 127 15 995750 732 1 034 2 100 3 549 11 497900 533 753 1 533 2 599 8 9681 050 404 1 166 1 9811 200 316 446 914 1 558 5 5071 350 253 734 1 2561 500 206 291 600 1 032 3 6701 650 171 499 8611 800 143 202 420 729 2 6141 950 121 357 6242 100 103 146 307 539 1 9512 250 89 265 4692 400 77 108 231 412 1 5082 550 67 202 3642 700 58 82 178 323 1 1972 850 48 157 2883 000 40 63 140 258 971Lintel sizes w � d (mm)Clear span 100 � 65 150 � 65 150 � 100 100 � 150 100 � 215150 mm minimum bearings for all lintelsSource: ACP Concrete LtdSteelworkUniversal beams – Safe distributed loads (kN) for grade 43 steel112 Architect’s Pocket BookSpans (m)Beam size Mass2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 7.0 8.0Deflection co-efficientsmm kg/m112.0 71.68 49.78 36.57 28.00 22.12 17.92 14.81 12.44 9.143 7.0406� 140 46 513 411 342 293 257 228 205 187 171 147 12839 414 331 276 236 207 184 165 150 138 118 103356� 171 67 662 567 472 405 354 315 283 258 236 202 17757 574 473 394 338 296 263 237 215 197 169 14851 519 420 350 300 263 234 210 191 175 150 13145 453 363 302 259 227 201 181 165 151 130 113356� 127 39 377 302 252 216 189 168 151 137 126 108 9433 311 248 207 177 155 138 124 113 104 89 78305� 165 54 479 398 331 284 249 221 199 181 166 142 12446 412 342 285 244 214 190 171 155 143 122 10740 370 296 247 212 185 165 148 135 123 106 93305� 127 48 404 323 269 231 202 180 162 147 135 115 10142 351 280 234 200 175 156 140 127 117 100 8837 311 249 207 178 156 138 124 113 104 89 78305� 102 33 274 219 183 156 137 122 110 100 91 78 6828 232 185 154 132 116 103 93 84 77 66 5825 190 152 127 109 95 84 76 69 63 54 47254� 146 43 333 267 222 191 167 148 133 121 111 95 8337 286 229 191 164 143 127 115 104 95 82 7231 233 186 155 133 117 104 93 85 78 67 58254� 102 28 203 163 135 116 102 90 81 74 68 58 5125 175 140 117 100 88 78 70 64 58 50 3722 149 119 99 85 74 66 60 54 50 43 37203� 133 30 184 147 123 105 92 82 74 67 61 5325 153 122 102 87 77 68 61 56 51203� 102 23 136 109 90.6 77.7 68.0178� 102 19 101 80.8 67.3 57.7 50.5152� 89 16 72.6 58.1 48.4 41.5 36.3127� 76 13 49.6 39.6 33.0 28.3 24.8Notes: See p. 113Steel joists (RSJ) – Safe distributed loads (kN)for grade 43 steelStructures 113Spans (m)Joist size Mass 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.0 3.25 3.5 4.0 4.25mm kg/mDeflection co-efficients199 146 112 88.5 71.7 59.2 49.8 42.4 36.6 28.0 24.8254� 203 82 518 500 454 416 304 357 312 294203� 152 52 362 356 311 277 249 226 207 191 178 156 146152� 127 37 210 180 158 140 126 115 105 97 90 79 74127� 114 29 136 116 102 90 81 74 68 63 58 51 48127� 114 27 131 112 98 87 79 71 65 60 56 49 46102� 102 23 84 72 63 56 51 46 42 39 36 32 3089� 89 19 61 52 46 41 36 33 30 28 26 23 2176� 76 13 37 31 27 24 22 20 18 17 16 14 13Notes:Loads printed in bold type may cause overloading of the unstiffened web, the capacityof which should be checked.Loads printed in italic type do not cause overloading of the unstiffened web, and do notcause deflection exceeding span / 360.Loads printed in ordinary type should be checked for deflection.Source: British Constructional Steelwork Association LtdSteel hollow sectionsHot formed structural hollow sections (SHS) are manu-factured to BS 4360 : 1990 and BS 4848 Part 2: 1991.The square and rectangular sections have tight corner radiiwhich have higher geometric properties and therefore a high-er load carrying capacity in compression than cold formedsections.Cold formed hollow sections (CFHS) are manufactured toBS 6363: 1989.The square and rectangular sections have larger corner radiiwhich give lower geometric properties than hot formed sec-tions of the same size and thickness. Cold formed hollow sec-tions must NOT be substituted in a direct size-for-size basis forhot formed hollow sections without checking the design.Where structural properties are not critical, CFHS provide acheaper solution.SHS = structural hollow sectionCHS = circular hollow sectionRHS = rectangular hollow sections including square sectionsCFHS = cold formed hollow section114 Architect’s Pocket BookStructural steel hollow sectionsExternal sizes in mmStructures 115Hot formed Cold formedcircular square rectangular circular square rectangular21.3 40 � 40 50 � 30 26.9 20 � 20 50 � 2526.9 50 � 50 60 � 40 33.7 25 � 25 50 � 3033.7 60 � 60 80 � 40 42.4 30 � 30 60 � 4042.4 70 � 70 90 � 50 48.3 40 � 40 80 � 4048.3 80 � 80 100 � 50 60.3 50 � 50 80 � 6060.3 90 � 90 100 � 60 76.1 60 � 60 90 � 5076.1 100 � 100 120 � 60 88.9 70 � 70 100 � 4088.9 120 � 120 120 � 80 114.3 80 � 80 100 � 50114.3 140 � 140 150 � 100 139.7 90 � 90 100 � 60139.7 150 � 150 160 � 80 168.3 100 � 100 100 � 80168.3 160 � 160 200 � 100 120 � 120 120 � 40193.7 180 � 180 200 � 120 150 � 150 120 � 60219.1 200 � 200 200 � 150 120 � 80244.5 250 � 250 250 � 100 150 � 100273.0 260 � 260 250 � 150 160 � 80323.9 300 � 300 260 � 140 200 � 100355.6 350 � 350 300 � 100406.4 400 � 400 300 � 200457.0 300 � 250508.0 350 � 150Seamless Jumbo 350 � 250hot formed hot formed 400 � 120hollow square hollow 400 � 150sections sections also 400 � 200also available with 400 � 300available thicker walls 450 � 250with thicker 350 to 600 mm 500 � 200walls square 500 � 300193 to660 mm øSource: Corus: tubes and pipesSteel lintels for cavity wallsSizes and safe loads116 Architect’s Pocket BookSize h � w Gauge Lengths Weight Safe loadCode mm mm kg/m tonnesCN7 143 � 245 E 750 to 1500 8.3 1.75F 1650 to 2100 9.3 2.0A 2250 to 2700 9.9 2.0CN8 219 � 245 B 2700 to 3600 15.8 3.0C 3900 to 4575 19.2 3.0C 4800 19.2 2.6CN3 143 � 265 E 750 to 1500 8.6 1.75F 1650 to 2100 9.7 1.85A 2250 to 2700 10.2 2.0CN4 219 � 265 B 2700 to 3600 16.1 3.0C 3900 to 4575 20.4 3.0C 4800 20.4 2.6CN43 143 � 270 E 750 to 1500 8.8 1.75F 1650 to 2100 9.9 2.0A 2250 to 2700 10.4 2.0CN44 219 � 270 B 2700 to 3600 16.5 3.0C 3900 to 4575 20.2 3.0C 4800 20.2 2.6CN41 143 � 285 E 750 to 1500 9.2 2.0CN42 219 � 280 B 2250 to 3300 17.03.0C 3600 to 4200 20.5 3.0CN11 143 � 285 E 750 to 1500 9.2 2.0F 1650 to 2100 10.4 2.25A 2250 to 2700 10.8 2.0CN12 219 � 285 B 2700 to 3600 16.9 3.0C 3900 to 4575 20.5 3.0C 4800 20.5 2.6CN14 219 � 295 A 750 to 2700 13.1 3.0B 2850 to 3600 16.5 3.0C 3900 to 4575 20.0 3.0C 4800 20.0 2.6CN57 143 � 310 E 750 to 1500 9.5 1.75F 1650 to 2100 10.6 1.85A 2250 to 2700 11.1 1.95CN58 219 � 310 B 2700 x 3600 18.0 3.0C 3900 x 4575 21.8 3.0C 4800 21.8 2.6Safe loads are safe working loads at maximum length.All figures based on a minimum end bearing of 150 mm.Standard lengths available in 150 mm increments up to 3000 mm length and300 mm increments thereafter.Structures 117Steel lintels for cavity walls – continuedConstructionSteel lintels, as detailed on pages 92 and 93, are called combinedlintels. They are made up of three pieces of metal, not all of whichare the same gauge. The gauge code letters represent combina-tions which range from the lightest, E, averaging 1.6 mm,through F, A, B, C to D the heaviest, averaging 3.0 mm.Heavy duty lintels are also available in thicker gauges.Lintels are made from galvanised steel with polyester powdercorrosion resisting coating.Bases of lintels are slotted for plaster key.Slabs of insulation are fitted inside profiles.Other profilesOpen back lintels – useful where the inner skin is fair faced.Rebated combined lintels – for window/door frames set backin reveals.Lintels for closed eaves – for windows tight under slopingroofs.Lintels for walls with masonry outer skin and timber frameinside.Lintels for masonry outer skin where inner skin is carried byconcrete lintel.Lintels for internal partitions and load bearing walls.Special profiles for various styles of arches and cantileveredmasonry corners.Stainless steelAll the above lintels are available in stainless steel at approxi-mately 21/2 to 3 times the cost.Source: Caradon Catnic Ltd118 Architect’s Pocket Book4ServicesDrainageFoul drains recommended minimum gradientsPeak flow Pipe size Minimum Maximuml/s mm gradient capacityl/s 1 75 1 : 80 2.8> 1 100 1 : 80 * 6.3> 1 150 1 : 150 † 15.0Pipe Ø Gradient Pipe Ø Gradient50 1 : 500 150 1 : 216075 1 : 860 175 1 : 2680100 1 : 1260 200 1 : 3200125 1 : 1680 225 1 : 3720* Minimum of 1 WC † Minimum of 5 WCsLand drainsin normal soils – minimum gradientsTraps minimum sizes and seal depthsAppliance Ø trap Seal depth Ø trap Seal depthmm mm mm mmwashbasin 32 75 waste disposer 40 75bidet 32 75 urinal 40 75bath* 40 50 sink 40 75shower* 40 50 washing machine* 40 75syphonic WC 75 50 dishwasher* 40 75*Where these fittings discharge directly into a gully the seal depth may bereduced to a minimum of 38 mm.Source: Building Regulations – Approved Document HInspection chamber coversTypical dimensionsCovers are manufactured in steel plate, galvanised steel andcast iron – overall sizes for cast iron will be larger. Covers mayhave single or double seals; plain or recessed tops, and bemultiple leaf or continuous for ducting. Alternative featuresinclude chambered keyholes, handlift recesses and lockingscrews.Most covers are available in the load classes shown below.120 Architect’s Pocket BookTypical clear opening Overall framemm mm300 � 300 370 � 370450 � 450 520 � 520600 � 450 670 � 520600 � 600 670 � 670750 � 600 820 � 670750 � 750 820 � 820900 � 600 970 � 670900 � 900 970 � 9701000 � 1000 1070 � 1070Class Wheel load Typical application(slow moving traffic)A 5 kN Pedestrian, cycle tracksAA 15 kN Private drives, car parking areasAAA 25 kN Restricted access roadsB 50 kN Commercial delivery, refuse collectionC 65 kN All roads but positioned within 0.5 m of kerbD 108 kN All roads restricted only by wheel loadingLoad classes for inspection chamber coversSources: Caradon Jones Ltd, Glynwed BrickhouseSingle stack drainage systemServices 1211.7m max for32mm ø pipe 3m max for40mm ø pipe.Slope for 32mm øwastepipes to bebetween 20mm/mfor 1.7m pipesand 120mm/mfor 0.6m longpipes3m max for 40mm ø pipe4m max for 50mm ø pipeSlope between 18 to 90mm/mTo avoid cross flow small similar sized connections should be offset at least 110mm on 100mm ø stackSoil vent pipe should be terminatedwith a cage or perforated cover.It should finish at least 900mm aboveany opening within 3mof stack.The stack may terminate withina building if fitted with an approvedair admittance valve providing thedrain is ventilated to outside else-where.In buildings of not more than twostoreys, the ventilating part of thestack, above the highest branch may be reduced to 75mm ø110 min offset (250 min for 150 ø stack)200 min offsetJunction betweenwc branch & stackmade with 50mmmin radius or at45°TRAPSWhere larger size of wastebranches are used, the trap sizeis not increaed but the tail of thetrap should be lengthened by50mm. See p 119 for minimumtrap sizes and seal depthsa ground floor wc mayconnect directly to drainproviding the drop is lessthan 1.5m between crownof trap and drain invertlarge radius bend at bottom of stack at least 200mm450mm minbetween lowestbranch anddrain invert in singledwellings of upto 3 storeyssinkbathbasinwcsink200min1.5mmaxNOTESeparate ventilating pipes will be needed if thefigures for branch length and slope are exceeded.This is to prevent traps being drawn6m max for single wcSlope 18mm/m min.Stack to be 100mm øMay be 75mm if servingnot more than one siphonicwc with 75mm outletangled connection or 50mm øparallel junction where a wastebranch directly opposite a wcwould enter the stack within200mm below the wc branchconnection centre line3m max for 40mm ø pipe4m max for 50mm ø pipeSlope between 18 and 90mm/mSource: Building Regulations – Approved document HRainwater disposalCalculation of gutter and downpipe sizesIn the UK, the maximum rainfall intensity is generally taken as75 mm per hour or 0.0208 litres per second (l/s). Note thatthis does not necessarily mean only high rainfall areas such asWest Wales and Scotland but, in surprisingly odd pockets likeNorfolk and Oxford, heavy downpours can exceed this figure.To calculate the size of rainwater goods it is necessary todetermine the effective roof area which, in the case of pitchedroofs, is as follows:Effectiveroof area = (H ÷ 2 + W) � L = m2Where H = vertical rise betweeneaves and ridgeW = plan width of slopeL = length of roofTo determine the maximum flow multiply the effective area by 0.0208.122 Architect’s Pocket BookTypical maximum flow capacitiesOutlet at one end of roof Outlet at centre of roofGutter Downpipe Level gutter Gutter to fall Level gutter Gutter to fallmm mm m2 l/s m2 l/s m2 l/s m2 l/s75 half round 51 Ø 15 0.33 19 0.40 25 0.54 30 0.64110 half round 69 Ø 46 0.96 61 1.27 92 1.91 122 2.54116 square 62 sq 53 1.10 72 1.50 113 2.36 149 3.11Refer to manufacturers’ catalogues for actual flow capacities, as profiles ofgutters can vary.Rule of thumb100–112 mm gutter with 68 mm Ø down pipe placed at cen-tre of gutter will drain 110 m2 effective roof area; placed atend of gutter will drain 55 m2 effective roof area. Gutter willdrain more if laid to slight (1 : 60) fall.HWLServices 123Water Supply RegulationsThe Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 supersedethe Water Supply Byelaws. Their aim is to prevent: waste, misuse, undue consumption, contamination or false measure-ment of water supplied by a Water Undertaker(WU). The regulations should be read in conjunction with the WRASGuide, which includes detailed information of sizes, flow rates,valves etc. Below is a VERY BROAD and BRIEF interpretation ofthe regulations.Application of the regulationsThe regulations apply only to fittings supplied with water by aWU. They do not apply to water fittingsfor non-domestic ornon-food production purposes providing the water is metered;the supply is for less than 1 month (3 months with writtenconsent) and no water can return through a meter to a mainspipe. They do not apply to fittings installed before 1 July 99.NotificationWater undertakers must be notified of the following:Erecting any building, except a pond or swimming pool of lessthan 10,000 litres capacityAltering any water system in non-residential premisesChanging the use of a propertyInstalling :• A bath with a capacity greater than 330 litres• A bidet with ascending spray or flexible hose• A single shower unit with multi-head arrangement• A pump or booster drawing more than 12 litres/min• A water softener with a waste or needing water forregeneration or cleaning• A reduced pressure zone valve or any mechanical devicewhich presents serious health risks• A garden watering system other than hand-held hose• External pipes higher than 730mm or lower than 1350mm• An automatically filled pond or swimming pool with acapacity of more than 10,000 litresContractor’s certificateContractors approved by the WU must issue certificates toclients stating that the work complies with the regulations. Foritems of Notification (see above) copies of these certificatesmust be sent to the WU. Contravention of the regulationsmay incur a fine not exceeding £1,000 (in 2000 AD).Fluid categoriesWater is described in five fluid categories ranging from‘wholesome’ water supplied by a WU to water representingserious health hazards. These categories are used, amongstother things, to define which type of backflow prevention (seebelow) is required.Contamination and corrosionWater for domestic use or food purposes must not be conta-minated by materials such as lead and bitumen. Water fittingsmust not be installed in contaminated environments such assewers and cesspits.Quality and testingWater fittings should comply with British Standards or Euro-pean equivalent and must withstand an operating pressure ofnot less than 1.5 times the maximum operating pressure. Allwater systems must be tested, flushed and, if necessary, disin-fected before use.LocationWater fittings must not be installed in cavity walls; embeddedin walls or solid floors; or below suspended or solid groundfloors unless encased in an accessible duct. External pipes,underground must not be joined by adhesives nor laid lessthan 750mm deep or more than 1350mm deep unless writtenconsent is obtained.Protection against freezingAll water fittings outside buildings or located within buildingsbut outside the thermal envelope should be insulated againstfreezing. In very cold conditions, in unheated premises, watershould be drained down before the onset of freezing or alter-native devices installed to activate heating systems.124 Architect’s Pocket BookServices 125Backflow protectionExcept where expanded water from hot water systems is permitted to flow backwards, water installations must haveadequate devices for preventing backflow as follows :• To prevent backflow between separate premises• Connection of grey or rainwater to a ‘wholesome’ waterpipe• Bidets with flexible hoses, spray handsets, under-rim waterinlets or ascending sprays• WC cisterns with pressure flushing valves• WCs adapted as bidets• Baths with submerged inlets (eg Jacuzzis)• Non-domestic washing machines and dishwashers• Sprinkler systems, fire hose reels and fire hydrants• Garden hoses and watering systemsCold water servicesEvery dwelling, including those in multi-story dwellings shouldhave separate stop valves for mains entry pipes inside eachpremises.Drain taps must be provided to completely drain water fromall pipes within a building.All domestic premises must have at least one tap for drinkingwater supplied directly from the mains.Cold water cisternsCold water cisterns for dwellings are no longer mandatoryproviding there is adequate water flow rate and mains pres-sure in the street. Check this with the WU before designingnew installation.Cisterns must be fitted with float valves and servicing valves.Overflow/warning pipes, with vermin and insect-proof screensmust be fitted to discharge conspicuously to outside. Wherecisterns are joined together, care must be taken to avoid onecistern overflowing into another and that water is fully circu-lated between cisterns and not short-circuited. Cisterns shouldbe insulated and be fitted with light and insect-proof lids.330mm minimum unobstructed space must be providedabove the cistern for inspection and maintenance.Hot water servicesTemperature control devices and relief valves must be fitted to unvented water heaters. Expansion valves must be fitted tounvented hot water systems larger than 5 litres. Primary circuitvent pipes should not discharge over domestic cisterns nor toa secondary system. Secondary circuit vent pipes should notdischarge over feed and expansion cisterns connected to a pri-mary circuit. Ideally, hot water should be stored at 60°C anddischarged at 50°C (43°C for shower mixers). Long lengths ofhot water pipes should be insulated to conserve energy.Garden water suppliesDouble check valves (DCVs) must be fitted to hose union tapsin new houses. Hose union taps in existing houses should bereplaced with hose union taps which incorporate DCVs.Watering systems must be fitted with DCVs as well as pipeinterrupters with atmosphere vent and moving element at thehose connecting point or a minimum of 300mm above thehighest point of delivering outlet.Pools and fountains filled with water supplied by a WU musthave an impervious lining.WCs and UrinalsSingle flush cisterns to WCs should not exceed 6 litres capacity.Manual pressure flushing valves to WC cisterns must receive atleast 1.2 litres/second flow at the appliance. WC cisternsinstalled before July 99 must be replaced with the same sizecistern. Existing single flush cisterns may not be replaced bydual-flush cisterns.Automatic urinal flushing cisterns should not exceed 10 litrescapacity for a single urinal and 7.5 litres/hour per bowl, stall or700mm width of slab. Urinal pressure valves should deliver no more than 1.5 litresper flush.Sources: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999The WRAS Water Regulations Guide126 Architect’s Pocket BookServices 127Water storagePlastic cold water cisternsRectangularlitres galls size l � w � h mm weight kg*18 4 442 � 296 � 305 0.968 15 630 � 448 � 420 3.291 20 665 � 490 � 510 4.2114 25 700 � 540 � 532 5.0182 40 940 � 610 � 590 7.3227 50 1155 � 635 � 600 9.0Circularlitres galls size Ø @ top � h mm weight kg*114 25 695 � 510 3.5182 40 795 � 590 4.4227 50 860 � 620 4.8273 60 940 � 620 5.8455 100 1060 � 750 10.4591 130 1060 � 920 14.5* Empty weight – one litre of water weighs one kilogram so full weight ofcistern equals litre capacity in kilograms plus empty weight.Source: Titan PlastechWater hardnesssoft to moderately softhard to moderately softhard to very hardHot water usageTypical average consumption – litres bath 60 per bathshower 13 per 5 minuteshandwashing 2 per personhairdressing 10 per shampoocleaning 10 per dwelling per daykitchen sink 5 per mealdishwasher 20 per cyclewashing machine 55 per cycleHot water storageTypical storage requirements @ 65 °C – litres per personhouse or flat 30office 5factory 5day school 5boarding school 25hospital 30sports centre 35luxury hotel 45128 Architect’s Pocket BookServices 129Domestic indirect copper hot water cylindersBS Ref diameter* height* heating litres gallonsmm mm surfacem20 380 1680 0.35 96 21.11 430 980 0.27 72 15.82 480 980 0.35 96 21.13 480 1130 0.42 114 25.14 530 755 0.31 84 18.55 530 830 0.35 95 20.96 530 905 0.40 106 23.37 530 980 0.44 117 25.78 530 1130 0.52 140 30.89 530 1280 0.61 162 35.610 580 1280 0.75 190 41.811 580 1580 0.87 24553.912 680 1280 1.10 280 61.613 680 1580 1.40 360 79.214 680 1880 1.70 440 96.8* Sizes include 40 mm sprayed on insulationBuilding Regulations require hot water cylinders to have factoryapplied insulation designed to restrict heat losses to 1 watt perlitre or less.In soft water areas, copper cylinders should be specified withan aluminium protector rod which is fixed inside the dome bythe manufacturers. This encourages the formation of a protec-tive film on the copper and will lengthen the life of the cylinderwhich may otherwise be subject to pitting.Source: Range Cylinders Ltd130 Architect’s Pocket BookU-valuesTo understand the use of U-values it is necessary to distinguishbetween the thermal measurement expressions below:Thermal conductivity (k-value)The heat (W) transmitted through unit area (m2) of a materialof unit thickness (m) for unit temperature difference (K)between inside and outside environments, expressed asW/mK (or W/m °C).Thermal resistivity (r-value)The reciprocal of thermal conductivity, i.e. mK/W (or m °C/W).It measures how well a material resists the flow of heat byconduction.Thermal resistance (R-value)This means how well a particular thickness of material resiststhe passage of heat by conduction, calculated from the r-valuein units of m2K/W (or m2 °C/W).Thermal transmittance (U-value)The reciprocal of thermal resistance, i.e. W/m2K (or W/m2 °C).This measures the amount of heat transmitted per unit area ofthe fabric per unit temperature difference between inside andoutside environments.U-value calculation formula:U =1RSI + RSO + RA + R1 + R2 + R3 . . .where RSI = thermal resistance of internal surfaceRSO = thermal resistance of external surfaceRA = thermal resistance of air spaces within constructionR1, R2, R3 etc.= thermal resistance of successive componentsR =1�thickness of material mmk-value 1000R-valuesServices 131Surface resistance R-values m2K/Wnormal exposureRSI inside RSO outsidesurface surfaceroof/ceiling 0.10 0.04wall 0.12 0.06floor 0.14 0.04Air space R-values m2K/W25 mm exposure RAin cavity wall 0.18loft space under sarking 0.18between metal cladding & lining 0.16in cold flat roof 0.16loft space under metal cladding 0.14between roofing tiles & felt 0.12behind tile hanging 0.12Thermal conductivity of typical building materialsMaterial kg/m3 W/mKasphalt 19 mm 1700 0.50blocks lightweight 1200 0.38med. weight 1400 0.51heavyweight 2300 1.63bricks exposed 1700 0.84protected 1700 0.62calcium silicate board 875 0.17chipboard 800 0.15concrete aerated slab 500 0.16lightweight 1200 0.38dense 2100 1.40felt/bitumen 3 layers 960 0.50fibreboard 300 0.06fibreglass quilt 25 0.04glass sheet 2500 1.05hardboard standard 900 0.13mineral wool quilt 12 0.04slab 25 0.035mortar normal 1750 0.80Material kg/m3 W/mKphenolic foam board 30 0.020plaster gypsum 1280 0.46sand/cement 1570 0.53vermiculite 640 0.19plasterboard gypsum 950 0.16polystyrene expanded 25 0.035polyurethane board 30 0.025rendering external 1300 0.50roofing tiles clay 1900 0.85concrete 2100 1.10screed 1200 0.41stone reconstructed 1750 1.30sandstone 2000 1.30limestone 2180 1.50granite 2600 2.30stone chippings 1800 0.96timber softwood 650 0.14vermiculite loose 100 0.65woodwool slabs 600 0.11K-values132 Architect’s Pocket BookConservation of fuel and powerThe requirement of Building Regulation part L is that reason-able provision shall be made to limit heat loss through thebuilding fabric, hot water and hot air systems. In the case ofnon residential buildings, provision must be made to limit solaroverheating and to provide energy efficient light systems.To show compliance it is necessary to produce SAP (StandardAssessment Procedure) energy ratings for buildings which canbe done in three ways:an elemental method; a target U-value method and a carbonindex method.The elemental method is suitable for small works and where itis desired to minimise calculations. The requirement will be metif the U-values of the elements do not exceed those listedbelow and, in the case of dwellings, providing the area of win-dows, doors and roof lights does not exceed 25% of the totalfloor area.In addition, the efficiency of the boiler in a dwelling must equalor exceed the SEDBUK (Seasonal Efficiency of a Domestic Boilerin the UK) ratings set out below. Note that the elementalmethod cannot be used for buildings with direct electric heating.Standard U-values for construction elementsExposed element W/m2KPitched roof (between 11º - 70º) with insulation between rafters 0.20Pitched roof with insulation between joists 0.16Flat roof (0º - 10º) or roof with integral insulation 0.25Walls, including basement walls 0.35Floors, including ground floors and basement floors 0.25Metal framed windows, roof windows, rooflights 2.20(area weighted average for the whole building)Wooden or PVC framed windows, roof windows, rooflights, 2.00doors (area weighted average for the whole buildingVehicle access and similar large doors 0.70Services 133Type of boiler minimum SEDBUK% ratingmains natural gas 78LPG 80Oil (combination boiler only) 82Oil 85Summary of U-values: Elemental method of calculationSource : Building Regulations Approved Documents L1 & L20.160.200.250.35 England &Wales0.30 Scotland0.250.35 England & Wales0.30 Scotlandunheated space0.25****area weighted average2.0 for wood & pvc frames2.2 for metal framesloftHeat lossesAs a rough guide, building heat losses will be between 20 to50 W/m3.For normal conditions and temperatures 30 W/m3 is average.Higher figures for tall, single storey buildings or large areas ofglazing, lower figures for well insulated buildings with minimalexposure, e.g. a building with 400 m3 of heated space mayrequire between 8 kW and 20 kW depending on conditions.Recommended indoor temperatures °CWarehousing; factory – heavy work 13General stores 15Factory – light work; circulation space 16Bedroom; classroom; shop; church 18Assembly hall; hospital ward 18Offices; factory – sedentary work 19Dining room; canteen; museum; art gallery 20Laboratory; library; law court 20Living room; bed-sitting room; 21Sports changing room; operating theatre 21Bathroom; swimming pool changing room 22Hotel bedroom 22Indoor swimming pool 26Source: Series A Design data CIBSE134 Architect’s Pocket BookHeat loss calculationThe heat loss from a room is the addition of all the individualsurface heat losses of the doors, windows, walls, floor and ceil-ings, plus any ventilation loss.Surface heat loss from any of these elements is calculated as:element area m2 � (inside °C � outside °C) �U-value of fabric = watts lostFor inside temperatures see list of Recommended IndoorTemperatures on p. 116. For outside temperature �1°C is thefigure normally used in the UK.Ventilation loss is the heat lost through cracks and gaps indoors and windows.With an average level of draughtproofing the following airchanges per hour are assumed:living rooms, bed-sitting rooms = 1bedrooms = 1/2kitchens and bathrooms = 2halls and stairways = 11/2rooms with chimneys add = +1Ventilation loss is then calculated as:no. air changes/hour � room volume m3�(inside °C � outside °C)� 0.33 = watts lostWhen assessing the size of a radiator for a room it is usual toadd between 10 per cent and 15 per cent to allow for impreci-sion of heat loss calculations and for faster warm-up times.Source: The Which? Book of Plumbing and Central HeatingServices 135136 Architect’s Pocket BookCentral heating and hot water systemsCONVENTIONAL CENTRAL HEATING andHOT WATER INSTALLATIONThis system uses storage cisterns, usually located in the roofspace to provide pressure for the hot water storage system,which consists of an indirect cylinder being fed fromNewcastleDundeeAberdeenWind – basic wind speedsin metres per second (m/s)and prevailing winddirectionsInvernessGlasgowLondonderryBelfastThe figures show maximum gust speed likely to be exceededon average only once in 50 years at 10 m above the ground inopen country. To convert metres per second to miles per hourmultiply by 2.24.8°C6°C4°C2°C0°C–2°C2 Architect’s Pocket BookTemperature – average for January18°C16°C14°C12°C10°C8°CGeneral Information 3Temperature – average for July3000 mm2000 mm1000 mm750 mm625 mm500 mm4 Architect’s Pocket BookRain – annual averageApproximate litres/m2 per spellunder 3333 to 56.556.6 to 100100 or moreYorkExeterNorwichNewcastleAberdeenBelfastEdinburghInvernessManchesterNottinghamBirminghamOxfordBristolLondonSouthampton DoverGeneral Information 5Rain – wind driven6 Architect’s Pocket BookSnowmore than 6040–6030–4020–3010–20less than 10average number of dayswith snow or sleetfallingGeneral Information 760°20° 15° 10°South-eastIcelandFaroesBaileyRockallMalinDoggerHumberThamesPlymouthFastnetLundyBiscayO = Coastal stationsBL = Butt of LewisC = Channel light vesselD = DoverDS = DowsingJ = JerseyLE = Land’s EndM = Malin HeadR = RonaldswayS = SumburghSA = St Abb’s HeadT = TireeV = ValenciaFitzroySoleShannonDoverWightPort-landFisherGermanBightHebridesCromartyForthIrishSeaBLOSAODSODOOCJLEOVO R9421356710112912 15161320212522192326241718Fair Isle2728STMOVikingFortes5° 0° 5° 10° 15°55°50°45°Sea areas, inland areas & coastal stationsused in weather forecasts by the Meteorological OfficeInland Areas1 = Greater London2 = S E England3 = East Anglia4 = Central S England5 = E Midlands6 = East England7 = W Midlands8 = Channel Islands9 = SW England10 = S Wales11 = N Wales12 = NW England13 = Lake District14 = Isle of Man15 = Central N England16 = N E England17 = Borders18 = Edinburgh & Dundee19 = Aberdeen area20 = SW Scotland21 = Glasgow area22 = Central Highlands23 = Moray Firth area24 = NE Scotland25 = Argyll26 = NW Scotland27 = Orkney28 = Shetland29 = N Ireland8 Architect’s Pocket BookMetric systemThe Système International d’Unités (SI), adopted in 1960,is an international and coherent system devised to meet allknown needs for measurement in science and technology. Itconsists of seven base units and the derived units formed asproducts or quotients of various powers of the base units.Note that base and derived units, when written as words, arealways written with a lower case first letter, even if the word isderived from the name of a person.SI Base units SI Prefixes (showing thenine most common)metre m length mega M � 1000 000kilogram kg mass kilo k � 1000second s time hecto h � 100ampere A electric current deca da � 10kelvin K thermodynamic deci d ÷ 10temperature centi c ÷ 100candela cd luminous intensity milli m ÷ 1000mole mol amount of micro μ ÷ 1000 000substance nano n ÷ 1000 000 000SI Derived unitscelsius °C = K temperature coulomb C = As electric chargefarad F = C/V electric capacitancehenry H = W/A inductancehertz Hz = c/s frequency joule J = Ws energylumen lm = cd.sr luminous fluxlux lx = lm/m2 illuminancenewton N = kg/m/s2 forceohm Ω = V/A electric resistancepascal Pa = N/m2 pressuresiemens S = 1/Ω electric conductancetesla T = Wb/m2 magnetic flux densityvolt V = W/A electric potentialwatt W = J/s powerweber Wb = Vs magnetic fluxSI Supplementary unitsradian rad = unit of plane angle equal to an angle at thecentre of a circle the arc of which is equalin length to the radiussteradian sr = unit of solid angle equal to an angle at thecentre of a sphere subtended by a part ofthe surface equal in area to the square ofthe radiusGeneral Information 9Metric unitsLengthkilometre km = 1000 metresmetre m = length of path travelled by light invacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a seconddecimetre dm = 1/10 metrecentimetre cm = 1/100 metremillimetre mm = 1/1000 metremicron μ = 1/100 000 metreAreahectare ha = 10 000 m2are a = 100 m2Volumecubic metre m3 = m � m � mcubic millimetre mm3 = 1 /1000 000 000 m3Capacityhectolitre hl = 100 litreslitre l = cubic decimetredecilitre dl = 1/10 litrecentilitre cl = 1/100 litremillilitre ml = 1/1000 litreMass or weighttonne t = 1000 kilogramskilogram kg = 1000 gramsgram g = 1/1000 kilogrammilligram mg = 1/1000 gram10 Architect’s Pocket BookGeneral Information 11TemperatureKelvin (K) The kelvin belongs to a group of seven SI baseunits used as a quantitive unit of thermodynamic temperature.It is named after Lord William Thompson Kelvin, a Scottishphysicist (1824–1907). In 1848 he suggested a scale of tem-perature, now called kelvin, in which the zero point is absolutezero, the temperature at which the motions of particles ceaseand their energies become zero. The units of kelvin anddegree celsius temperature intervals are identical (thus 1 °C = 1K), but the point of absolute zero in celsius is minus273.15K, thus 0 °C = 273.15 K.It is now customary for temperature and temperature intervalsto be described in degrees celsius (°C) although colour tem-perature of light sources is measured in degrees kelvin (K).Celsius (°C) The celsius scale is a scale of temperature onwhich water freezes at 0° and boils at 100° under standardconditions. It was devised by Anders Celsius, a Swedishastronomer (1701–44). He originally designated zero as theboiling point of water and 100° as freezing point. The scalewas later reversed.Centigrade A temperature scale using the freezing point ofwater as zero and the boiling point of water as 100°. The scaleis now officially called celsius (see above) to avoid confusion inEurope where the word can mean a measure of plane angleand equals 1/10 000 part of a right angle.Fahrenheit (°F) A scale of temperature still used in the USAwhich gives the freezing point of water as 32° and boilingpoint as 212°. Named after Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, aPrussian physicist (1686–1736) who invented the mercurialbarometer. The Fahrenheit scale is related to the Celsius scaleby the following relationships:temperature °F = (temperature °C � 1.8) + 32temperature °C = (temperature °F � 32) ÷ 1.8Imperial unitsLengthmile = 1760 yardsfurlong = 220 yardschain = 22 yardsyard (yd) = 3 feetfoot (ft) = 12 inchesinch (in) = 1/12 footAreasquare mile = 640 acresacre = 4840 square yardsrood = 1210 square yardssquare yard (sq yd) = 9 square feetsquare foot (sq ft) = 144 square inchessquare inch (sq in) = 1/144 square footVolumecubic yard = 27 cubic feetcubic foot = 1/27 cubic yardcubic inch = 1/1728 cubic footCapacitybushel = 8 gallonspeck = 2 gallonsgallon (gal) = 4 quartquart (qt) = 2 pintpint (pt) = 1/2 quartgill = 1/4 pintfluid ounce (fl oz) = 1/20 pint12 Architect’s Pocket BookWeightton = 2240 poundshundredweight (cwt) = 112 poundscental = 100 poundsquarter = 28 poundsstone = 14 poundspound (lb) = 16 ouncesounce (oz) = 1/16 pounddram (dr) = 1/16 ouncegrain (gr) = 1/7000 poundpennyweight (dwt) = 24 grainsNautical measureBS nautical mile = 6080 feetcable = 600 feetfathom = 6 feetGeneral Information 1314 Architect’s Pocket BookConversion factorsImperial to SI SI to ImperialLength 1.609 mile kilometre km 0.62150.9144 yard metre m 1.0940.3048 foot metre m 3.28125.4 inch millimetre mm 0.0394Area 2.590 sq mile sq kilometre km2 0.38610.4047 acre hectare ha 2.4710.8361 sq yard sq metre m2 1.1960.0929 sq foot sq metre m2 10.7639645.16 sq inch sq millimetre mm2 0.00155Volume 0.7646 cubic yard cubic metre m3 1.30790.02832 cubic foot cubic metre m3 35.3116.39 cubic inch cubic millimetre mm3the boiler.Cold water may also be distributed around the house from themain storage cistern.PRIMARY HEAT STORE with DIRECT VENTED PRIMARYHere the hot water is stored at low pressure in a tank which isfed by a small feed tank over it. Mains water is fed into a highcapacity coil where it is heated at mains pressure and blendedwith cold to stabilise the temperature. The system may be heated by a boiler or an immersion heater. With a boiler therecovery time is very fast. The flow rate is slightly less than anunvented storage system.INDIRECT UNVENTED STORAGE SYSTEM with SEALED PRIMARYThis system stores hot water at mains pressure and providesspace heating and water heating by means of a separate primarycircuit. The hot water cylinder may be located anywhere.UNVENTED SYSTEM with INSTANTANEOUS COMBINATION BOILERThis system is most suitable for small houses and flats wherespace is at a premium. As there is no hot water storage cylinder,the flow of hot water will be somewhat reduced but this is usually only noticed when running a bath or simultaneouslyusing several taps.● = service main � = pump B = boiler C = controls= stopcock = motorised valve R = radiator T = thermostatSource: Ideal Standard LtdHW� R�RRTBHW�RRRR�TBRR�R RRRRB�TRRBPTCRadiators typical sizes and outputsPanel radiators – steelHeights: 300, 450, 600, 700 mmLengths: 400 to 3000 in 100 mm incrementsServices 137Type Thickness Approx Output*Single panel without convector 47 mm 1500 W/m2Single panel with convector 47 mm 2200 W/m2Double panel with convector 77 mm 3300 W/m2Double panel with double convector 100 mm 4100 W/m2* m2 measured on elevationType Thickness Approx Output*Two columns wide 62 mm 2150 W/m2Three columns wide 100 mm 3000 W/m2Four columns wide 136 mm 3700 W/m2Five columns wide 173 mm 4600 W/m2Six columns wide 210 mm 5400 W/m2* m2 measured on elevationSources: Caradon StelradZehnder Ltd Multicolumn radiators – steelHeights: 185, 260, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 750,900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2000, 2200,2500, 2,800, 3000 mmVentilationMeans of ventilationRequired by the Building Regulations for rooms without fullmechanical ventilation138 Architect’s Pocket BookRapid ventilation Background Minimum fan(e.g. opening ventilation extract rateswindow) or PSV*Domestic buildingsHabitable room 1/20th floor area 8000 mm2 no requirementKitchen opening window 4000 mm2 30 l/s (108 m3/h)(unsized) or fan adjacent to hob orwith 15 mins 60 l/s (216 m3/h)overrun timer elsewhere or PSVUtility Room opening window 4000 mm2 30 l/s (108 m3/h)(unsized) or fan or PSVwith 15 minsoverrun timerBathroom opening window 4000 mm2 15 l/s (54 m3/h)(with or without WC) (unsized) or fan or PSVwith 15 mins overrun timerSanitary 1/20th floor area or 4000 mm2 no requirementaccommodation fan @ 6 l/s (but see rapid(separate from (21.6 m3/h) ventilation)bathroom)Non-domestic buildingsOccupiable room 1/20th floor area 10 m2 =4000 mm2+ 400 mm2per m2 ofextra floor areaServices 139Rapid ventilation Background Minimum fan(e.g. opening ventilation extract rateswindow) or PSV*Non-domestic buildings continuedKitchen opening window 4000 mm2 30 l/s (108 m3/h)(domestic type i.e. (unsized) adjacent to hob ornot a commercial 60 l/s (216 m3/h)kitchen) elsewhereBathrooms opening window 4000 mm2 15 l/s (54 m3/h)(including shower (unsized) per bath/ per bath/showerrooms) showerSanitary 1/20th floor area or 4000 mm2 no requirementaccommodation fan @ 6 l/s per WC (but see rapid(and/or washing (21.6 m3/h) ventilation)facilities) per WC or 3 airchanges/hCommon spaces 1/50th floor area or no no requirement(where large numbers fan 1 l/s (3.6 m3/h) requirement (but see rapidof people gather) per m2 ventilation)Rest rooms 1/20th floor area 10 m2 =4000 mm2+ 400 mm2per m2 ofextra floor area* PSV = passive stack ventilationSee notes overleafMeans of ventilationNotes to tables on pages 138 and 139Rapid ventilation openings should have some part at least1.75 m above floor level. Methods of background ventila-tion are typically adjustable trickle ventilators or airbricks withhit-and-miss louvres located at least 1.75 m above floor level.PSV means passive stack ventilation operated manually and/orautomatically by sensor or controller in accordance with BREInformation Paper 13/94 or a BBA Certificate.An open flued appliance may be considered to provide ven-tilation if it has a free flue area of at least 125 mm diameterand is permanently open, i.e. no damper.However if an open flued appliance is within the same roomas an extract fan this may cause spillage of flue gases so:Where a gas appliance and a fan are located in a kitchen themaximum extract rate should be 20 l/s (72 m3/h).An extract fan should not be provided in the same room as asolid fuel appliance.Kitchens, utility rooms, bathrooms and WCs which do nothave openable windows should be provided with an air inlet,e.g. a 10 mm gap under the door.Kitchen extract ventilation ‘adjacent to hob’ means within300 mm of centreline of hob and should be either a cookerhood or a fan with a humidistat.Utility rooms which are accessible only from outside thebuilding need not conform with the ventilation requirementsof the Building Regulations.Adjacent rooms may be considered as one room if there is apermanent opening(s) of at least 1/20th of the combined floorareas, in the dividing wall.140 Architect’s Pocket BookWhere a non-habitable space such as a conservatory adjoinsa habitable room, the habitable room may be ventilated withopening(s) of at least 1/20th of the combined floor areas inboth the dividing wall and the wall to the outside, both open-ings to have at least 8000 mm2 background ventilation. Theopening(s) to the dividing wall may be closable.Source: Building Regulations Approved Document F1 1998Services 141142 Architect’s Pocket BookExtractor fansSizing of fansThe size of a fan should take into account the size of the roomand not necessarily be the minimum required by the BuildingRegulations.It therefore makes sense to calculate the size of fan needed byusing the desired number of air changes per hour and relatingthem to the room size.Suggested air changes per hour for typical situationsTo calculate the extract performance needed for a fan, multi-ply the volume of a room (m3) by the number of air changesper hour required (ACH):e.g. Domestic kitchen 4 m � 5 m � 2.5 m = 50 m3air changes required = 1250 � 12 = 600 m3/hone m3/h = 0.777 l/sone l/s = 3.6 m3/hDomestic Non-domesticLiving rooms 3–6 Cafés and restaurants 10–12Bedrooms 2–4 Cinemas and theatres 6–10Bathrooms 6–8 Dance halls 12-15WCs 6–8 Factories and workshops 6–10Kitchens 10–15 Commercial kitchens 20–30Utility rooms 10–15 Offices 4–6Halls and passages 3–5 Public toilets 6–8Siting of fans• Site fans as far away as practicable from the main sourceof air replacement which is usually the room door.• Site fans where there is reasonable access for cleaning andmaintenance.• Fans in bathrooms must be sited out of reach of a personusing a fixed bath or shower and must be kept well awayfrom all sources of spray.• Insulate ducts passing through unheated roof spaces tominimize condensation.• Slope horizontal ducts slightly away from fan.• Vertical ducts, and ducts in roof spaces, should be fittedwith a condensate trap with a small drainpipe to outside.• See pp. 138–140 for Building Regulation requirements and siting of extractor fans.Types of fansAxial fans are designed to move air over short distances, asthrough walls or windows.Centrifugal fans are designed to move air over long distancesand performwell against resistance built up over long lengthsof ducts.Sources: Vent-Axia Ltd and Xpelair LtdServices 143144 Architect’s Pocket BookElectrical installationElectricityElectricity is sold by the unit.One unit is consumed at the rate of one kilowatt for one hour(kWh)Comparative costs of domestic appliancesFuses – rating for 230 volt AC appliancesTo find the correct amp rating of a socket for an appliance,divide the watts of the appliance by the voltsi.e. watts ÷ 230 = amps.Appliance Time per unit3 kW radiant heater 20 minutes2 kW convector heater 30 minutesiron 2 hoursvacuum cleaner 2 hourscolour TV 6 hours100 watt lamp 10 hours60 watt lamp 16 hoursrefrigerator 24 hoursTypical usage of larger appliances kWhchest freezer per week 11/2dishwasher one full load 21/2cooker per week for family of four 23hot water cylinder per week for family of four 85Rating Colour Appliance wattage2 amp black 250 to 4503 amp red 460 to 7505 amp black 760 to 125013 amp brown 1260 to 3000Services 145Electrical installation graphic symbolsSUPPLY and DISTRIBUTIONelectricity metertransformerdistribution boardisolatorterminal to earthfusecircuit breakerlightning protectioncable / conduit on diagramscable / conduit on plansSWITCHESone pole switchone pole switch, two gangtwo, three, four pole switchestwo way switchintermediate switchswitch with pilot lamppull cord switchswitch, time operatedswitch, period operatedswitch, temperature operateddimmer switchpush button switchpush switch, illuminatedpush on/push off switchLUMINAIRESluminaireenclosed luminairereflectorspotlight open, enclosedflood open, enclosedlinear open, enclosedemergency/safety open, enclosedemergency/safety self containedlinear emergency/safetyopen, enclosedluminaire on wall open, enclosedluminaire on pole open, enclosedluminaire on suspension cableluminaire with built-in pull cordPOWERsocket outletswitched socket outlettwin socket outletsocket outlet with pilot lampconnection unitswitched connection unitconnection unit with cable outletconnection unit with pilot lampconnection unit, four gangshaver socketcooker control unit with two pole switchCOMMUNICATIONS SOCKETSFM radiotelevisionprivate service televisionclosed circuit televisiontelephonetelexmodemfaxSource: BS 1192: Part 3: 1987146 Architect’s Pocket BookElectric circuits in the homesocket for TV amplifierlighting circuitfantriple poleswitch forservicing fanbathroomlight�lightingcircuitsecuritylightring circuitconnectionunit forbathroomheatertwo-wayswitchesfrom groundto first floorElectricity Company cut-outPME protective multiple earth terminalwaterheaterconnectionunits for appliancesjunctionboxring circuitmeter30 20 30 30 30 30 5 5mainswitchlightswitchdimmerswitchdouble poleswitch toGreenhousesupply double pole switchto garage suppymains supply live and neutralGreenhouselow voltagetransformerarmoured underground cable to 2 way consumer unit in greenhousegarden fountainand lightingarmoured underground cable to 2 way consumer unit in garageGaragefreezersplit load consumerunit with RCD pro-tection to the powercircut breakers2 ganglight switchshaversocketServices 147LightingLighting glossarycandela (cd) The SI unit of luminous intensity which iseither light flux per solid angle – explained as quantities, orlumen per steradian – defined in terms of units.CIE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage, who devisedthe Colour Rendering Index.colour rendering The ability of a light source to rendercolours naturally without distorting the hues seen under a fullradiator (similar to daylight) in which all the wavelengths ofthe visible spectrum are present.Colour Rendering Index (CRI) An index based on eight stan-dard test colours where the unit is Ra. Ra100 is the maximumvalue. Ra85 and above is considered appropriate for everydaycomfort. The index can also be arranged in values of 1 to 4according to DIN 3035.colour temperature The absolute temperature of a blackradiator (reference light source) which emits the same colour irra-diation as a given light source measured in degrees Kelvin (K).Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT) The colour appear-ance determined from its colour temperature given in degreesKelvin. The lower the figure the warmer the light. Less than3300 K is warm (red); 3300–5300 K intermediate and morethan 5300 K cold (blue). The human eye cannot differentiatebetween individual spectral colours of a light source, it canonly perceive a mixture of colours.crown silvered lamp A GLS lamp with part of the bowl sil-vered to project light backwards to avoid glare. Normally usedwith parabolic reflectors to give a narrow beam forwards.dichroic mirror lamp A small lamp with a built-in spiral,often faceted mirror reflector. This may be specifically madewith honeycomb facets for medium–wide distribution andtrapezoid facets for narrow beams. The mirror is made toreflect only certain colours of light and transmit heat radiationso as to produce a cool beam of light. The facets help to148 Architect’s Pocket Bookreduce striations in the beam, producing softer focusing withblurred edges to the beam.discharge lamp A light source from an electrical dischargepassing through a glass containing vapour or gas.efficacy The ratio of initial lumens divided by lamp watts(lm/W). Typical efficacy for a GLS lamp is 8–18 rising to100–180 for a low pressure sodium lamp.elliptical (E) The shape of some discharge lamps.flood (F) A lamp designed with a wide beam.fluorescent tube A discharge tubular lamp, generally fittedwith argon and low pressure mercury vapour. It has a phos-phor coating on the inside giving off light (fluorescing) whenexcited by an electric arc through the vapour.GLS General Lighting Service: standard tungsten filamentpear shaped lamps.halogen lamp An incandescent lamp filled with low pres-sure vapour of iodine or bromine. Sometimes referred to astungsten-halogen.HID High Intensity Discharge lamps, i.e. metal-halide, mer-cury and sodium lamps.HP High Pressure, descriptive of some mercury and sodiumlamps.ILCOS International Lamp Coding System produced by theInternational Electrotechnical Commission in 1993.illuminance The amount of light falling on a surface. Theunit is lux which is one lumen per square metre (lm/m2).incandescent lamp A tungsten filament enclosed in a glassenvelope either under vacuum or filled with inert gas so that itcan be electrically heated without burning out. Incandescentmeans luminous or glowing with heat; as a result can be aninefficient light source emphasizing reds, yellows and greenswhile subduing blues.initial lumens The light output of a lamp measured afterone hour for incandescent lamps and 100 hours for fluores-cent and discharge lamps. Lumens quoted in manufacturers’catalogues are ‘initial’ lumens.IS Internally Silvered. Used to describe the internal lining of areflector lamp.LIF Lighting Industry Federation (UK).Light-Loss Factor (LLF) The loss in light output from a lu-minaire due to dirt on the lamp or fitting. Now more normallyreferred to as maintenance factor.Light Output Ratio (LOR) The ratio of the total light emit-ted by a luminaire to the total output of the lamp(s) it contains– which is always less than unity.lumen (lm) The unit of luminous flux used to measure theamount of light given off by a light source.lumen maintenance The speed of decline of the initialamount of light.luminaire A light fitting.luminance The brightness of a surface in a given direction,measured in candelas per square metre (cd/m2).luminous flux The flow of light energy from a source, orreflected from a surface, standardized for the human eye andmeasured in lumens. It isused to calculate illuminance.luminous intensity The amount of energy in a cone of lightfrom a source. Units expressed in candelas (lumen/steradian).lux The unit of illuminance measured in lumens per squaremetre (lm/m2). Bright sunlight is 100 000 lux; full moon is 1 lux.maintained illuminance The minimum light level over anarea immediately prior to cleaning/re-lamping.maintenance factor The proportion of initial light outputfrom an installation after some specified time.mercury lamps Discharge lamps filled with mercury vapourwith moderate colour rendering, emphasizing yellows andblues which shift towards violet while subduing reds.metal halide lamps High pressure mercury discharge lampswith additives which can vary the light appearance from warmto cool.opal Describes an internal white silica coating to a lampwhich diffuses the light and conceals the filament more pos-itively than pearl.Services 149PAR Parabolic Aluminised Reflector (lamp). The number fol-lowing PAR is the number of eighths of an inch of the lampdiameter, e.g. PAR38 = 43/4”Ø.pearl The acid etched internal finish to a lamp to mask anddiffuse the glare from the filament. Less positive than opal orsatin.Rated Average Life (RAL) The time by which 50 per centof lamps installed can be expected to have failed.reflector lamp (R) A lamp with an internally silvered lining.satin A lamp finish similar to opal.sodium lamp (SON) A highly efficient lamp with a warmyellow light, used mainly for street and flood lighting. It haspoor colour rendering, with the low pressure (SOX) types mak-ing all colours except yellow appear brown or black.spot (S) A lamp producing a narrow beam of light asopposed to the medium/wide beam of a flood.switchstart A fluorescent lamp circuit incorporating a starterswitch.tri-phosphor lamp A fluorescent lamp with good colourrendering.tungsten-filament lamp An incandescent lamp.tungsten-halogen lamp A halogen lamp.150 Architect’s Pocket BookLighting: levels and coloursServices 151Comparative light levels luxBright sunlight 100 000Worktop near window 3 000Precision task lighting 1 000*Drawing boards 750*Kitchen preparation areas 500*General reading 300*Entrance halls 150*Corridors, storage 100*Full moon on clear night 1*Recommended minimum light levelsColour temperatures KBlue sky 10 000Uniform overcast sky 7 000Average natural daylight 6 500HP mercury cool white lamp 4 000Fluorescent warm white lamp 3 000Halogen filament lamp 3 000GLS tungsten filament 2 700HP sodium lamp 2 050CIE Colour Rendering IndexRa Group100 Where accurate colour matching is required, e.g. printing 1Ainspection90 Where good colour rendering is required, e.g. shops 1B80 Where moderate colour rendering is acceptable 260 Where colour rendering is of little significance but marked 3distortion unacceptable40 Where colour rendering is of no importance 420LampsListed on the following pages is a survey of the main types oflamps available.Excluded are the many variations of certain types and thosewhich may be used for more specialized situations such asinfra-red, UV stop, horticultural, black light etc. Also excludedare the high output low sodium lights used mainly for roadlighting. The list is therefore not comprehensive and manufac-turers’ catalogues should be consulted for more information.Lumens quoted are for Initial lumens (see Glossary). The lowestvalues have been given, which are for pearl or opal versions ofa lamp or the ‘warmer’ colour temperature fluorescent tubes.Sources: G.E. Lighting Ltd, Osram Ltd, Philips Lighting Ltd,Concord Sylvania Lamp bases152 Architect’s Pocket BookB22d B22d–3 B15d P40s P28s BA20dE40s E27s E14s E12GX38q PG22 BHP30s GX9.5 G17q G38 G6.35G17tG4 GY7–9 GY16 G22 GY9.5 EMEP GX5.3 GZ4R7sIncandescent lampsServices 153ILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Peak cd Colour K Life hcodeIAA GLS 25 103 � 60 225 – 2 700 1 000standard bulb, 40 103 � 60 410 – 2 700 1 000pearl and clear 60 103 � 60 700 – 2 700 1 00075 103 � 60 930 – 2 700 1 000100 103 � 60 1 350 – 2 700 1 000150 129 � 68 2 100 – 2 700 1 000200 160 � 80 3 000 – 2 700 1 000300 110 � 88 4 550 – 2 700 1 000500 110 � 88 8 200 – 2 700 1 000IAA GLS Rough 40 103 � 60 240 – 2 700 1 000Service 60 103 � 60 485 – 2 700 1 000RS, shock resistant 100 103 � 60 850 – 2 700 1 000and dustproofI GLS mushroom 40 88 � 50 385 – 2 700 1 000pearl, smaller than 60 88 � 50 660 – 2 700 1 000standard GLS 100 94 � 60 1 250 – 2 700 1 000I GLS double 40 103 � 60 370 – 2 700 2 000life 60 103 � 60 630 – 2 700 2 000some also rated 100 103 � 60 1 200 – 2 700 2 0003 000 hours 150 129 � 68 1 900 – 2 700 2 000IAA GLS colour 15 103 � 60 – – 2 700 1 000red, blue, green, 25 103 � 60 – – 2 700 1 000yellow, orange & 40 103 � 60 – – 2 700 1 000pink 60 103 � 60 – – 2 700 1 000IBP Golf Ball 25 75 � 45 185 – 2 700 1 000small round, 40 75 � 45 350 – 2 700 1 000clear and opal 60 75 � 45 580 – 2 700 1 000IAG Globe 40 138 � 95 260 – 2 700 1 500large round, 60 138 � 95 470 – 2 700 1 500clear & opal 100 138 � 95 1 020 – 2 700 1 500IBB Candle 25 97 � 35 185 - 2 700 1 000clear, opal, 40 97 � 35 350 - 2 700 1 000plain & twisted 60 97 � 35 580 - 2 700 1 000154 Architect’s Pocket BookIncandescent lamps – continuedILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Peak cd Colour K Life hcodeIRA Crown silvered 60 104 � 60 485 – 2 700 1 000clear lamp with 100 128 � 68 970 – 2 700 1 000silvered bowl toavoid glareIBS Pygmy 15 57 � 28 105 – 2 700 1 000clear, compact, 25 63 � 28 175 – 2 700 1 000also coloured, RS,heat resistantIBT Striplight 30 221 � 25 190 – 2 700 1 000two lengths, 30 284 � 25 190 – 2 700 1 000clear & opal 60 221 � 25 420 – 2 700 1 00060 284 � 25 420 – 2 700 1 000IRR Reflector 25 85 � 50 – 180 2 700 1 000pearl crown with 40 85 � 50 – 400 2 700 1 000integrated 60 103 � 64 – 750 2 700 1 000aluminium 75 115 � 80 – 1 000 2 700 1 000reflector, 100 115 � 80 – 1 400 2 700 1 000variants include 150 180 � 125 – 2 500 2 700 1 000coloured R,B,G,A & horticulturalIRR Infra-red 150 180 � 125 – – 2 700 6 000Reflector 250 180 � 125 – – 2 700 6 000heater lamp with 275 180 � 125 – – 2 700 6 000clear or red frontIPAR PAR 38with 15° 60 136 � 124 – 2 600 2 700 2 000parabolic 30° 60 136 � 124 – 1 100 2 700 2 000reflector, 15° 80 136 � 124 – 4 000 2 700 2 000also coloured 30° 80 136 � 124 – 1 750 2 700 2 000R, B, G, Y, A 15° 120 136 � 124 – 7 000 2 700 2 00030° 120 136 � 124 – 3 000 2 700 2 000IPAR PAR 56narrow spot 300 127 � 178 – 70 000 2 700 2 000medium flood 300 127 � 178 – 30 000 2 700 2 000wide flood 300 127 � 178 – 10 000 2 700 2 000Services 155GLS crown silvered PAR 38mushroom pygmy reflectorgolf ball striplight candleglobe PAR 56Incandescent lampsHalogen: low voltage156 Architect’s Pocket BookILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Peak cd Colour K Life hcodeHRG 35 mm Ø 7° 12 41 � 35 – 6 400 2 900 2 000Dichroic 12 V 10° 20 41 � 35 – 5 500 2 900 3 500open and 30° 20 41 � 35 – 600 2 900 3 500closed 8° 35 41 � 35 – 9 000 2 900 3 500versions 30° 35 41 � 35 – 1 300 2 900 3 500HRG 50 mm Ø 36° 20 49 � 51 – 500 3 050 3 500Dichroic 12 V 18° 35 49 � 51 – 3 600 3 050 3 500open and 38° 35 49 � 51 – 970 3 050 3 500closed 10° 50 49 � 51 – 12 000 3 050 3 500versions 38° 50 49 � 51 – 1 550 3 050 3 500HMG100 mm Ø 3° 35 65 � 100 – 53 000 3 000 3 500Metal 4° 50 65 � 100 – 55 000 3 000 3 500Reflector 21° 50 65 � 100 – 3 300 3 000 3 50012 V 18° 75 65 � 100 – 6 750 3 000 3 500HSG Capsule – 10 33 � 9 140 – 3 000 3 000single ended 20 33 � 9 350 – 3 000 3 00012 V 35 33 � 9 650 – 3 000 3 00050 44 � 12 1 000 – 3 000 3 00075 44 � 12 1 600 – 3 000 3 000100 44 � 12 2 300 – 3 000 3 000Services 157dichroic 35 mm & 50 mm PAR 30 PAR 38metal reflector linear halogenBTT halogensingle endedcapsuleglobe halogen tubular halogenHalogen lampsHalogen: mains voltage158 Architect’s Pocket BookILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Peak cd Colour K Life hcodeHEGPAR PAR 30 10° 75 91 � 97 – 6 900 2 900 2 500halogen 30° 75 91 � 97 – 2 200 2 900 2 500reflector 10° 100 91 � 97 – 10 000 2 900 2 50030° 100 91 � 97 – 3 500 2 900 2 500HEPAR PAR 38 11° 75 136 � 124 – 10 500 3 050 3 000halogen 30° 75 136 � 124 – 2 800 3 050 3 000infra red 11° 100 136 � 124 – 15 500 3 050 3 000reflector 30° 100 136 � 124 – 4 200 3 050 3 000HDF Linear-halogen 200 79 � 10 3100 – 2 900 2 000double ended 300 118 � 8 4800 – 2 900 2 000also 100,150,250 500 118 � 10 9500 – 2 900 2 000& 1500 watts and 750 190 � 1015000 – 3 000 2 000225,375 & 1000 1 000 190 � 10 21000 – 3 000 2 000watt infra-red 2 000 331 � 10 44000 – 3 000 2 000coatedHDF Globe-halogen 60 139 � 95 700 – 2 900 2 000white and clear 100 139 � 95 1 300 – 2 900 2 000150 139 � 95 2 000 – 2 900 2 000HEGBT BTT-halogen 60 115 � 47 700 – 2 900 2 000clear & opal 100 115 � 47 1 100 – 2 900 2 000replacements for 150 115 � 47 1 450 – 2 900 2 000GLS lampsHEGT Tubular halogensingle ended 75 109 � 33 1 000 – 2 900 2 000opal and clear 100 109 � 33 1 450 – 2 900 2 000clear 500 215 � 46 9 500 – 2 900 2 000clear 1000 280 � 46 21 000 – 3 000 2 000Compact fluorescentServices 159ILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Colour K Life hcodeFSD Single U tube 5 105 � 28 250 2 700 to 10 0002 & 4 pin 7 135 � 28 400 4 000 10 0009 165 � 28 600 depending on 10 00011 233 � 28 900 type of lamp 10 00018 225 � 38 1 200 10 00024 320 � 38 1 800 10 00036 415 � 38 2 900 10 000FSQ Double U tube 10 110 � 28 600 2 700 to 10 0002 & 4 pin 13 138 � 28 900 4 000 10 00018 152 � 28 1 200 10 00026 170 � 28 1 800 10 000FSM Triple U tube 18 114 � 49 1 200 2 700 to 10 000in triangular 26 131 � 49 1 800 4 000 10 000arrangement 32 153 � 49 2 400 10 000FBT Double U tube 7 125 � 45 460 2 700 to 10 000with E27 & B22 11 125 � 45 600 6 000 10 000caps* 15 152 � 45 900 10 00020 165 � 45 1 200 10 000FSS 2D 10 140 � 140 650 2 700 to 10 0002 and 4 pin 16 140 � 140 1 050 6 000 10 00021 140 � 140 1 350 10 00028 205 � 205 2 050 10 00038 205 � 205 2 850 10 000F Globe-compact 15 175 � 110 720 2 700 10 000fluorescent 20 200 � 125 960 10 000F Self-ballasted 9 151 � 73 450 2 700 to 8 00013 161 � 73 650 4 000 8 00018 171 � 73 900 8 00025 181 � 73 1 200 8 000* as direct replacement for GLS lamps without need for adaptor160 Architect’s Pocket Booksingle U tubedouble U tubetriple U tubecompactfluorescent globecircular7 mm sub-miniature16 mm miniature26 mm standard tube38 mm standard tubedouble U tube (for GLS replacement)2D self ballastedFluorescent lamps and tubesFluorescent tubesServices 161ILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Colour K Life hcodeFD 7 mm Ø 6 219 � 7 310 3 000 to 8 000sub-miniature 8 320 � 7 600 4 000 8 00011 422 � 7 680 8 00013 523 � 7 860 8 000FD 16 mm Ø 4 136 � 16 115 2 950 to 5 000miniature 6 212 � 16 240 6 500 5 0008 288 � 16 340 5 00013 517 � 16 750 5 000FD 26 mm Ø 15 438 � 26 1 050 2 700 to 15 000tri-phosphor 18 590 � 26 1 450 6 300 15 00030 895 � 26 2 500 15 00036 1 200 � 26 3 350 15 00058 1 500 � 26 5 400 15 00070 1 778 � 26 6 550 15 000FD 38 mm Ø 20 590 � 38 1 050 2 950 to 9 00040 1 200 � 38 2 500 6 500 9 00065 1 500 � 38 4 200 9 00075 1 800 � 38 6 400 9 00085 1 800 � 38 6 400 9 000100 2 400 � 38 8 450 9 000125 2 400 � 38 9 300 9 000FC Circular 22 216 � 29 1 000 3 000 12 00032 311 � 32 1 700 3 000 12 00040 413 � 32 2 400 3 000 12 00060 413 � 32 3 650 3 000 12 000Lamp comparisonGLS incandescent lamp FBT double U compactfluorescent lampLumens Watts Watts Lumens410 40 7 460700 60 11 600930 75 15 9001350 100 20 1200High-intensity discharge lamps162 Architect’s Pocket BookILCOS Description Watts Size l � Ø Lumens Colour K Life hcodeMetal halideMC Compact 75 138 � 54 5 000 3 200 15 000ellipticalmetal halideME low wattage 100 138 � 54 8 000 3 200 15 000clear and coated 150 138 � 54 12 000 3 200 15 000MD Double ended 70 120 � 21 6 000 3 200 6 000metal halide clear 150 137 � 24 13 000 3 200 6 000250 162 � 26 20 000 3 200 6 000MT Single ended 75 84 � 25 5 200 3 000 6 000metal halide clear 150 84 � 25 12 000 3 000 6 000Mercury vapourQE Standard 50 130 � 56 1 800 4 000 20 000Elliptical 80 166 � 71 3 800 4 000 20 000mercury coated 125 178 � 76 6 300 4 000 20 000250 227 � 91 13 000 4 000 20 000QR Mercury 80 168 � 125 3 000 4 000 24 000Reflector 125 168 � 125 5 000 4 000 24 000160 168 � 125 2 500 4 000 24 000Sodium vapourST Tubular 50 156 � 39 4 000 2 200 24 000HP sodium 70 156 � 39 6 500 2 200 24 000(SON) clear 100 211 � 48 9 500 2 200 24 000150 211 � 48 17 000 2 200 24 000250 260 � 48 32 000 2 200 24 000SE Elliptical 50 165 � 72 3 600 2 050 24 000HP sodium 70 165 � 72 6 000 2 050 24 000(SON) coated 100 186 � 76 9 500 2 050 24 000150 227 � 91 15 500 2 200 24 000250 227 � 91 31 500 2 200 24 000STH Tubular 50 150 � 32 2 300 2 500 5 000HP sodium 100 150 � 32 4 800 2 500 5 000(white SON) clearServices 163High-intensity discharge lampssingle ended metal halidedouble ended metal halidemercury elliptical mercury reflectorHP sodium elliptical HP sodium tubular164 Architect’s Pocket BookSoundNoise levelsThe level of hearing is expressed in decibels from 0 dB, thethreshold of hearing, to 140 dB, the threshold of pain.Ears respond to sound frequencies or pitch from around 20 Hzbass to 20 kHz treble. Most people are more sensitive to highrather than low frequencies, but old age reduces the percep-tion of higher frequencies.Recommended maximum dBA*• Hospital and general wards 55• Small consulting rooms 50• Large offices 45–50• Private offices 40–45• Living rooms 40–45• Small classrooms 40• Large lecture rooms 35• Bedrooms 30–40• Music studios 30* dBA are decibels weighted to simulate the response of ourears as opposed to plain dB which do not depend directlyon human reaction.Source: BS 8233 : 1987Services 165Sound levelsdBrange140• Threshold of pain130• Pneumatic drill120• Loud car horn @ 1 m110• Pop group @ 20 m100• Inside tube train90• Inside bus80• Average kerbside traffic70• Conversational speech60• Typical office50• Family living room40• Library30• Bedroom at night20• Broadcasting studio10• Threshold of hearing0Source: Pilkington United Kingdom LtdSound transmission loss of some typical building elements166 Architect’s Pocket BookMaterial dBOne layer 9.5 mm plasterboard 25Cupboards used as partitions 25–356 mm single glazing 2975 mm timber studs with 12.5 mm plasterboard both sides 36115 mm brickwork plastered one side 4375 mm clinker concrete block plastered both sides 446 mm double glazing with 100 mm air gap 44100 mm timber studs with 12.5 mm plasterboard both sides & quilt in cavity 46115 mm brickwork plastered both sides 47230 mm brickwork plastered one side 48230 mm brickwork plastered both sides 555Building ElementsStairsBuilding Regulations requirementsGUARDINGrequired where drop is over 600mm in private stairs or two or more risers in other buildingsLANDING width at top ofstairs to be not less thanwidth of stair. It may bepart of floorLanding width at bottomof stair to be same widthas stair and 400mm clearof any door swingHEADROOMThere must be aminimum of 2mover flights andlandingsHANDRAILnot required over last two steps in private stairs exceptfor the disabledHandrail required atone side of stair ifunder 1m wide, andon both sides if over1m wide.Balustrades to stairsused by childrenunder 5 must be constructed so that a 100m ø sphere cannot pass throughFLIGHT HEIGHTS forthe disabled shouldnot be higher than1200m externally and1800mm internallySTAIR WIDTHThere is no mandatory minimum width but for the disabled, where no lift available, stairsmust be 1000mm minimum between handrails. A public staircase wider than 1800mm should bedivided into flights not wider than 1800mmover 6002m min900 to 1000400168 Architect’s Pocket BookLOFT CONVERSIONSHeadroom may bereduced if height atcentre of stair is atleast 1900mm and notless than 1800mm atside of stairALTERNATING TREADSmay be permitted forloft conversions wherethere is no room for aproper staircase. Theymay only access oneroom and must havehandrails both sides and non-slip surface to treads. 234681057911Building Regulations requirements – continuedLONG FLIGHTSStairs with more than 36 risers in consecutive flights should make at least one change of direction of notless than 30°. No more than 16 risers in any flight of stairs serving areas used as a shop or for assembly.TAPERED TREADS measurement of goingmore than 1mgoing measured�on this width�not lessthan 50mmlanding width atleast width of stairs30° minimum270270less than 1mgoing measured�at this point�not lessthan 50mmeqeqBuilding Elements 169max. pitchprivatestair = 42°minimumoverlap220min. going forprivate stairmax. rise private stair22016�pitch�OPEN RISERSare allowed except for stairs for the disabled whereno lift is available.Stairs used by children under 5 must have treads overlapping a minimum of 16mm and be constructed so that a 100mm ø spherecannot pass through.SOURCESBuilding Regulations Approved DocumentsK Stairs, ramps and guardsM Access for disabled peopleB Fire safetyN Glazing (for glass balustrades)BS 6180: 1982 for strength of balustradesSpiral and helical stairs should be in accordance with BS 5395: Part 2: 1984RISE and GOINGPrivate stairExternal stair for the disabledInternal stair for the disabledInstitutional & Assembly stairAssembly building � 100m2Other stairnormal ratio: twice the rise plus going(2R + G) should be between 550mm and 700mmmax. min.rise going220 220150 280170 250180 280180 250190 250Gradients% Slope Application5% 1:20 maximum uphill gradient preferred by cyclistsmaximum outdoor slope for pedestrians6.5% 1:15.4 maximum downhill gradient preferred by cyclists6.7% 1:15 maximum wheelchair ramp for a maximum length of 10 m8.3% 1:12 maximum wheelchair ramp for a maximum length of 5 m8.5% 1:11.8 maximum indoor slope for pedestrians10% 1:10 maximum ramp for lorry loading bays and most car parking garages12% 1:8.3 any road steeper than this will be impassable in snow without snow tyres or chainsmaximum for dropped pavement kerbs of less than 1 m long15% 1:6.7 absolute maximum for multi-storey car parksBuilding Regulation requirementsFireplace recesses170 Architect’s Pocket Bookminimum dimensions of solid non-combustible materialminimum dimensionsin a cavity wallin a solid wallback-to-backin separatedwellingsback-to-backin samedwellingPREFABRICATED FIREPLACE CHAMBERSmay be used if made of insulating concretewith the following minimum dimensions:base 50side walls 75rear walls 100top slab, lintel 100or throat gather200200200 100100FireplacesConstructional hearthsCONSTRUCTIONAL HEARTHS are required for an openfire, a gas flue where the flame is less than 225mmabove floor finish, a solid fuel or oil burning appliancewhere the temperature of the floor may exceed 100°C. Ifbelow this temperature then appliance may sit on a non-combustible board or tiles – both at least 12mm thick.Hearths must be at least 125mm thick ofsolid non-combustible material whichmay include the thickness of any non-combustible decorative surface.150840500840in fireplace recess freestandingBuilding Elements 171Superimposed hearths – Minimum dimensions from the face of an appliance150150� outline of construc-tionalhearthbelowappliancefront�appliancefront�300 openappliance225 closedapplianceOutline or constructionalhearth below�Superimposed hearths are optional. They must be made of solid non-combustible material and be placed over aconstructional hearth as shown on P. 170. An appliance must be located on a hearth (whether a constructionalor superimposed hearth) with the minimum dimensions as shown in the drawings above. The edge of this areaof hearth must be clearly marked such as by a change of level.minimumheight aboveappliance1200minimumheight ofwall with‘t’ thick-nesstd15030025max�50 airspace250 125minimum distances allowedbetween COMBUSTIBLE materialand hearth. A combustible floorfinish may only extend 25mmunder a superimposed hearth.WALLS ADJACENT TO HEARTHS which arenot part of a fireplace recess must have thefollowing thickness and be of solid non-combustible material:HEARTH abutting a wall twhere d is 0–50 200where d is 51–300 75HEARTH not abutting a wallwhere hearth edgemade tosweep flues. For sizesof flues – see Table2.2 in the BuildingRegs.These requirements are summarizedfrom The Building Regulations ApprovedDocument J 2002 edition.FACTORY-MADE insulated chimneys should conform to BS 4543 and be fittedto BS 7566.3 x ø11 /2øø11 /2ønon-combustiblematerialnon-combustibleshield placed in frontof combustible material with at least12mm airspacebehind shieldDoorsStandard doors are still manufactured primarily in imperial sizes.The manufacturers claim that this is because of demands by thebuilding trade. There is also a need for replacement doors inolder properties and the apparently odd size 2’8” � 6’8” is stillproduced for this reason. There is more demand for metric sizesfor large scale building projects but the choice is still limited.Unless a large quantity of doors is ordered, standard sized doorsare still significantly cheaper than specials.Because of the need to accommodate wheelchair users, widerdoors are now more in demand. An 800 mm clear opening isconsidered the absolute minimum for a wheelchair user. Sixtymm should be deducted from the actual door width to arriveat the clear opening size. This dimension takes into accountthe thickness of the door and hinges standing open at oneside and the rebate or stop on the other side.Typical sizes of single leaf standard doors (metric)174 Architect’s Pocket Book926 � 826 � 807 � 726 � 626 � 526 � Thickness2040 2040 2000 2040 2040 2040 (mm)ExteriorSolid panelled * 44Glazed panelled * 44Flush * * 44 Steel faced * 44 Framed and ledged * 44 Ledged and braced * 36InteriorSolid panelled * 35 Glazed panelled * * * 40Flush * * * * * 40 Moulded panelled * * * * * 35 and 40Fire1/2 hour * * * * * * 441 hour * * 54 Typical sizes of single leaf standard doors (imperial)Other types of doorsFire doorsFire doors are available in most standard sizes in flush doors,and some are also available in internal moulded panelled doors.Half-hour and one-hour fire doors are only rated FD 30(S) andFD 60(S) when used with appropriate door frames which arefitted with intumescent strip (combined with smoke seal). Theintumescent strips and smoke seals may also be fitted to thetop and long edges of the fire door.French doorsTwo-leaf glazed doors, opening out, are manufactured inhardwood and softwood in the following typical sizes:Metric : 1106 wide � 1994 mm high; 1200, 1500 and 1800 wide � 2100 mm highImperial : 1168 wide � 1981 mm high (3’10” � 6’6”) and914 wide � 1981 mm high (3’0” � 6’6”).Building Elements 175836 � 813 � 762 � 686 � 610 �1981 2032 1981 1981 1981 Thickness2’9” � 2’8” � 2’6” � 2’3” � 2’0” � (mm)6’6” 6’8” 6’6” 6’6” 6’6”Exteriorsolid panelled * * * 44glazed panelled * * * 44flush * * * * * 44steel faced * * 44framed and ledged * * * * * 44ledged and braced * * * * * 36Interiorsolid panelled * * * * 35 & 40glazed panelled * * * * * 35 & 40flush * * * * * 35 & 40moulded panelled * * * * * 35 & 40Fire1/2 hour * * * * * 441 hour * * * * 54Sliding glazed doorsOften called patio doors, these are available in hardwood,softwood, uPVC and aluminium in hardwood frames in thefollowing metric nominal opening sizes typically:2 leaf : 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400 wide � 2100 mm high OX and XO3 leaf : 2400 to 4000 wide in 200 mm increments � 2100 mm high OXO4 leaf : 3400 to 5000 wide in 200 mm increments � 2100 mm high OXXOOpening configurations are often labelled:O = fixed panel and X = sliding panel when viewed from outside.Some manufacturers offer all panels sliding.Garage doorsGarage doors are manufactured in hardwood, softwood, ply-wood, steel and GRP. The following typical sizes exclude theframe which is recommended to be a minimum of ex 75 mmtimber.w hmm mmSingle : 1981 � 1981 (6’6” � 6’6”)1981 � 2134 (6’6” � 7’0”)2134 � 1981 (7’0” � 6’6”)2134 � 2134 (7’0” � 7’0”)2286 � 1981 (7’6” � 6’6”)2286 � 2134 (7’6” � 7’0”)2438 � 1981 (8’0” � 6’6”)2438 � 2134 (8’0” � 7’0”)Double : 4267 � 1981 (14’0” � 6’6”)4267 � 2134 (14’0” � 7’0”)other double doors available in widths up to 4878 (16’0”)176 Architect’s Pocket BookLouvre doorsHardwood open louvre doors suitable for cabinet and wardrobedoors.28mm thick and still made in imperial sizes: Widths (mm) : 305 (1’0”) 530 (1’9”)380 (1’3”) 610 (2’0”)457 (1’6”)also in 1981 (6’6”) heights only686 (2’3”) 762 (2’6”)Heights (mm) : 457 (1’6”) 1524 (5’0”)610 (2’0”) 1676 (5’6”)762 (2’6”) 1829 (6’0”)915 (3’0”) 1981 (6’6”)1219 (4’0”)Bi-fold doorsNarrow full height doors, hinged in pairs, suitable forwardrobes. Supplied complete with sliding/folding gear.Typically moulded panelled doors but other larger sizes avail-able with mirrored finishes.Sizes per pair : 610 mm (2’0”) � 1981 (6’6”)(mm) 762 mm (2’6”) � 1981 (6’6”)914 mm (3’0”) � 1981 (6’6”) Sources: JELD-WEN UK, PremdorBuilding Elements 177Door handing178 Architect’s Pocket BookThe traditional way of describing the configuration of a door is by the ‘hand’ – see 1. There is also the ISO coding method 2 which describes a door’s action as clockwise or anticlockwise. Despite its name it is not international and not widely used. Different components for a door sometimes conflict as, for instance, a doorwhich requires a right hand rebated mortice lock may need a left hand overhead door closer. When in doubt, thespecifier should draw a diagram.1 Handing methodThe definition of an OUTSIDE FACE of a door is:the external side of a door in an external wall;the corridor side of a room door;the side of a communicating door on which the hinge knuckles are not seen when the door is closed;the space between them in the case of twin doors;the room side of a cupboard, wardrobe or closet.2 ISO coding methodCODEclockwise closing = 5 e.g. 5.0 = clockwise closing / opening faceanticlockwise closing = 6 5.1 = clockwise closing / closing faceopening face = 0 6.0 = anticlockwise closing / opening faceclosing face = 1 6.1 = anticlockwise closing / closing faceDirection of CLOSING and DOOR FACE are given to identify the door configuration as examples above.Right handrim lockmortice locklocksetcupboard lockrim lockmortice locklocksetcupboard lockopening face 0closing face 1opening face 0closing face 1clockwise closing 5 anticlockwise closing 6OUTSIDE OUTSIDELeft handINSIDErim lockmortice locklocksetrim lockmortice locklocksetINSIDERight handLeft handBuilding Elements 179The rails are fixed to the fullheight styles with haunchedtenons & wedged.Muntins are tenoned to railsDowels, as shown on LHS,can also be used for astronger joint which withstands well unevenshrinkage.All frame sections aregrooved at least 9 mm tohouse the panels.Stiles are normally ex 100 ×50 or 125 × 50Bottom & lock rails are deep-er, typically ex 200 × 50Panels should be min 6 mmply for internal doors and min9 mm ply for external doorsex 100 × 75 headex 100 × 50top rail with stuck (integral) moulding9 mm ply panelex 200 × 50bottom railex 75 × 50 hardwoodweather mould best morticed into doorRebate in door frame for msweather barex 125 × 50 hardwoodcill carried under sideframes with min 9° slopeDoor made up of ex 150 ×32 ledges and ex 100 × 32braces with ex 25 mm t+g‘V’ jointed boarding notmore than ex 125 mm wide.Ledges are screwed to theboards and the boards arenailed to the ledges.Door hung with steel Teehinges or with strongerwrought iron strap hingesand fastened with a suffolklatch.Traditional wooden doors definitions and typical sectionstop railpanel ↑mould→lock railbottom railstilemuntinstilemuntintop ledgebottomledgemiddle ledgebracebraceLedged & braced boarded doorFour panelleddoorExternal door framefor inward opening doorDoor frameex 100 × 75 with rebate fordoor stop. Can be erectedbefore walls or built intoopeningDoor liningex 32 mm with width to suit wallLinings are thinner than door frames andfor internal doors only. They have plantedstops and are fitted to finished openingbolectionmoulding whichprojects outside frameRaised and fielded panelstuck mould insidewith glass securedwith putty outsideGlazed doorstuck mould outsidewith planted bead insidearchitraves master joint between plaster & liningand provide stop-end for skirtingoutside faceglazing beads▲▲180 Architect’s Pocket BookWindowsStandard windowsStandard windows listed below are manufactured in soft-wood, hardwood and in PVC in a wide range of sizes andtypes and are the most commonly available. The sizes areapproximate.Side hung casementsThis is by far the most common type of standard window.They are available as single sashes or in twos, threes and fours.There are numerous combinations of fully-opening side hungsashes, one or more fixed lights and smaller top hung vents,with or without glazing bars. Side hung sashes can be fittedwith concealed friction stays fixed over the top and under thebottom of sashes, in lieu of conventional hinges, for easiercleaning from inside.Widths : 630, 915, 1200, 1770 and 2340 mm.Heights : 750, 900, 1050, 1200 and 1350 mm.Bay windowsSquare, splayed at 45°, semi-circular and shallow curved baywindows are available using combinations of fixed lights, sideand top hung casements and double hung sashes to suitstructural opening widths of approximately 1200 to 3500 mmwith projections as little as 130 mm for shallow curved baysand up to 1000 mm for semi-circular bays.Top hung casementsTop hung sashes generally without glazing bars.Widths : 630, 915 and 1200 mm singles; 1770 mm single with fixed side light.Heights : 450, 600, 750, 900, 1050 and 1200 mm.Building Elements 181Standard windows – continuedAlso vertical configurations with central horizontal transomand top hung opening sash to top half mimicking traditionaldouble hung sashes.Widths : 480, 630, 915, 1200 mm singles; 1700 and 2340 mm doubles.Heights : 750, 900, 1050, 1200, 1350, 1500 and 1650 mm.Fixed lightsA range of fixed light windows sometimes referred to as‘direct glazed’.Widths : 300, 485, 630 and 1200 mm.Heights : 450, 600, 750, 900, 1050, 1200 and 1350 mm.Circular : 600 mm Ø ‘Bullseye’.Semi-circular : 630, 915 and 1200 mm Ø fanlights with orwithout two 60° glazing bars.Double hung sashesSoftwood double hung sashes with spiral balances, some fit-ted with a tilting mechanism allowing for easier cleaning fromthe inside. With and without glazing bars.Widths : 410, 630, 860, 1080 mm singles; 1700 and 1860 mm combinations.Heights : 1050, 1350 and 1650mm.Tilt and turn windowsSoftwood windows with complex hinge mechanism allowingpartial projection for ventilation and complete reversal forcleaning. Available also as a side hung escape window.Widths : 450, 600, 900, 1200, 1350, 1500 and 1800 mm.Heights : 600, 900, 1050, 1200, 1350, 1500 and 1600 mm.Sources: JELD-WEN UK, Premdor182 Architect’s Pocket BookStandard windows – typical specificationGlazingMost windows have rebates suitable for single glazing or double glazing units up to a thickness of 20 mm. Doubleglazed units are available if required with a choice of plain,obscured, annealed or toughened glass.ProtectionThe Building Regulations require that all glazing below 800 mmabove floor level in windows and below 1500 mm above floorlevel in doors and sidelights, and sidelights which are within300 mm of a door, should be fitted with safety glass. Seepp. 240–1. Small panes should have a maximum width of 250mm and an area not exceeding 0.5 m2 and should be glazedwith glass a min-imum 6 mm thick. See diagrams on p. 190.Weather strippingWeather stripping is usually provided as standard to all open-ing lights.FinishesTimber windows are normally supplied primed for painting orwith a base coat for staining. Options may include completepainting or staining.VentilationMost windows are now fitted with ventilators in the head-frame providing either 4000 mm2 in the narrower windows or8000 mm2 controllable secure ventilation to suit currentBuilding Regulations in the wider windows.FittingsFasteners, peg stays, hinges etc. all supplied with the windowsin gold effect, lacquered brass, brown or white finishes.Swept headsElliptical curves for the tops of panes available factory fitted orsupplied loose.Building Elements 183Traditional wooden windows, definitions and typical sectionsheadjambtop hungventilatormulliontransomtop railstilemeetingstilesside hungsashbottom railcilloutside liningto casedframetop railstileglazing barstop sashmeeting railhornbottom sashbottom railflush cillDouble hung windowCasement windowcast ironweightsplywoodlining21 × 8partingbead�spring balancesfixed in groove in24 mm thickframe (modernalternative topulleys weights& sash cords)92 × 21 outside lining116 × 21 pulley head41 × 22 glazing bar�70 × 21 inside lining19 × 14 removable staff bead48 × 41 sash top railand stiles41 × 24 splayed and rebatedmeeting rails70 × 41 bottom rail(deeper for larger sashes)136 × 70 flush cill94 × 70 head & jambs120 × 70 transom45 × 45 top railand stiles70 × 45 bottom rail165 × 70 cillRoof windowsHorizontally-pivoted roof windowsDesigned for roof pitches between 15° and 90°. Pine orpolyurethane frames, double glazed with a choice of glass:clear, obscured, toughened, laminated and Low-E coated.Glass cavities can be gas filled to achieve U-values of 1.9 downto 1.5 W/m2K:Standard sizes, overall frame w � h mm550 � 780*550 � 980*+660 � 980 780 � 980*+1340 � 980660 � 1180* 780 � 1180* 940 � 1180 1140 � 1180*+780 � 1400* 940 � 1400 1140 � 1400 1340 � 1400780 � 1600 940 � 1600* 1140 � 1600 1340 � 1600780 � 1800* = ex stock += can be combined with tilted insulated kerb for flat roofsFinishes : externally – grey aluminium as standard, othermetals available.internally – lacquered or white painted timberframes; polyurethane frames finished white.Fittings : Control bar at head operates window and venti-lation flap; friction hinges; barrel bolt for lockingin two positions; security bolts.Flashings : Available to suit most roofing materials. If required they can enable windows to be fittedside-by-side or one-above-the-other and in groups.Accessories : External awning blinds; roller shutters. Internal insect screens; interior linings.Roller, black-out, pleated or venetian blinds.Cord, rod and electronic controls for operatingsashes, blinds etc Break-glass points. Smoke ventilation system to automatically openwindow in the event of fire.Pre-installed electric system to operate high levelskylights via an infra-red remote control.184 Architect’s Pocket BookTop hung roof windowsDesigned for low roof pitches where a pivoted window mightinterfere with headroom. Suitable for pitches between 15º and55º (and up to 77º with special springs). Can be rotated 180ºfor cleaning. Some versions are available for an escape/accessdoor. Sizes similar to pivoted windows.Additional fixed light windowsThese may be fitted directly above or below a roof window,within the same plane, to extend the view and increase daylight.Balcony systemA top hung roof window opens out horizontally and is com-bined with a bottom hung lower sash fixed in the same plane.The lower sash opens out to a vertical position and railings auto-matically unfold to close the sides and create a small balcony.Roof terrace systemThis system combines a top hung roof window with a verticalside hung opening out sash fixed below with no intermediatetransome, allowing access to abalcony or terrace.Additional vertical windowsWhere floor level is below the eaves and more light and view isrequired, bottom hung or tilt-and-turn windows may be fixedin the vertical plane directly below roof windows fixed in thesloping roof above.Conservation Area roof windowsHorizontal pivot windows with a central vertical glazing bar,recessed installation and black aluminium external finish suit-able for Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas.Sizes: 550 � 980* 660 � 1180 780 � 1400* A version of this window is available as a side hung escape/access roof window.Source : Velux Company LtdBuilding Elements 185RooflightsIndividual rooflights are typically square, rectangular or roundon plan and come as flat glass sheets, domes or pyramids.Plastic rooflights to be suitable for any space except a protect-ed stairway must be rated TP(a) rigid.Typical sizes nominal clear roof openingsSquare : 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800 mm.Rectangular : 600 � 900, 600 � 1200, 900 � 1200,1200 � 1500, 1200 � 1800 mm.Round : 600, 750, 900, 1050, 1200, 1350, 1500, 1800mm Ø.MaterialsWired glass : Polished or cast glass, single or double glazedFire rating : Class 0Polycarbonate : Clear, opal and tinted. Almost unbreakable,good light transmission, single, double or triple skinsFire rating : TP(a) Class 1Average U-values : single skin 5.3 W/m2Kdouble skin 2.8 W/m2Ktriple skin 1.9 W/m2KPVC : Clear, opal and tinted. Cheaper than polycarbonate but will discolour in time.Single and double skinsFire rating : TP(a) Class 1U-values : single skin 5.05 W/m2Kdouble skin 3.04 W/m2K186 Architect’s Pocket BookCurbsCurbs are generally supplied with rooflights, but they may alsobe fitted directly to builder’s timber or concrete curbs. Curbstypically have 30° sloping sides, are made of aluminium orGRP and stand up 150–300mm above roof deck.They may be uninsulated, insulated or topped with variousforms of ventilators, normally fixed or adjustable louvres, handor electrically operated.Access hatch : Hinged rooflight, manually or electricallyoperated, typically 900 mm sq.Smoke vent : Hinged rooflight linked by electron magnetsto smoke/heat detecting systems.Optional extras : Bird and insect mesh for vents in curbs.Burglar bars – hinged grille fixed to curb orin-situ upstand.Sources: Cox Building Products, Duplus Domes Ltd, Ubbink (UK) LtdPatent glazing A system of puttyless glazing normally usedfor roofs but can also be used for curtain walling. The glazingbars, usually aluminium, can be several metres long and arenormally spaced at 600 mm centres. The bars have concealedchannels to drain the moisture out at the eaves of the roof orthe bottom of the wall glazing. Can be single or double glazedwith sealed units.Leaded lights Windows made up of small panes of glass,either regular or patterned as in stained glass, which are set inlead cames – ‘H’ section glazing bars.Building Elements 187Security fittingsSecurity against intruders is becoming ever more sophisti-cated with new electronic technology. However, it is impor-tant to ensure the physical protection of buildings and partic-ularly to have a secure perimeter.External doorsExternal doors must be sufficiently strong and properlyinstalled to resist shoulder charges and kicking. Doorframesshould have minimum 18-mm rebates and be firmly fixed toopenings at 600 mm centres. Doors should have a minimumthickness of 44 mm with stiles at least 119 mm wide toaccommodate locks. Panels should not be less than 9 mmthick. Flush doors should be of solid core construction.Meeting styles of double doors should be rebated.Door ironmongeryFront doors should be fitted with a high security cylinder lockfor use when the building is occupied, with an additional five-or seven-lever mortice deadlock to BS 3621. Back and sidedoors should be fitted with a similar deadlock with two securitybolts at the top and bottom. Deadlocks should have boxedstriking plates to prevent jemmy attack and hardened steelrollers to resist hacksawing. Doors should be hung on three (11/2pairs) metal broad butt hinges. Outward opening doors shouldhave hinge bolts to prevent doors being levered open on thehinge side. Position letter plates at least 400 mm from any lock.Fit door viewers and door chains to any door likely to beopened to strangers. Chains should be fixed with 30 mm longscrews to prevent being forced open. Entrance doors should belit so that callers can be seen at night. Burglars are wary ofbreaking glass, so glass doors are not necessarily vulnerableproviding the glass is fixed from the inside. However, slidingglass doors are particularly vulnerable. The main mortice lockbolt should be supplemented by a pair of key-operated lockingbolts fixed at the top and bottom. Anti-lift devices should befitted in the gap between the door panel and frame to preventthe outer door being lifted off the runners.188 Architect’s Pocket BookBuilding Elements 189WindowsRear windows are most at risk, as are windows accessible frombalconies or flat roofs. Sliding windows should be designed sothat it is impossible to remove sashes or glass from the outside.External hinge pins and pivots should be secured by burringover. Avoid rooflights which have domes fixed with clips thatcan be broken from outside. Where escape from fire is notrequired, fix metal bars or grilles below rooflights.Window ironmongeryAll ground floor, basement and any upper floor vulnerablewindows should be fitted with two security bolts to each case-ment sash and to the meeting rails of double-hung sashes.Upper floor sashes should have at least one security bolt. Forgreater safety choose locks with a differ key rather than thosewith a common key, which experienced intruders will own.Other physical devicesCollapsible grilles, sliding shutters and, where appropriate, blastand bullet-proof screens and ram stop bollards.Safes for domestic use can be as small as ‘two brick’ wallsafes or floor safes let into floors. Larger floor safes weighfrom 370 kg to 2300 kg and must be anchored to floors.Locks may be key, combination or electronic.Electronic devices include the following:• Access control – voice/video, keypad, card readingentry, phone systems• Intruder detection – intruder alarms, CCTV surveillance,security lighting• Fire protection – smoke and heat detection, f irealarms, ‘break glass’ switches, auto-matic linking to fire stations.Sources: A Guide to the Security of HomesHome Security and SafetyBanham Patent Locks LtdChubb Physical Security Products190 Architect’s Pocket BookProtection for glazing in doors and windowsBased on Building Regulations ApprovedDocument N1. Dotted areas show critical locations in internal and external glazing in doors, side panels, screens and windows.2. If annealed glass is used, it shouldbe in small panes not larger than 0.5 m2with a maximum width of 250 mm. Theglass should be at least 6 mm thick.There are certain areas of glazingwhich can prove hazardous, particularly to children.1. shows the extent of these areaswhich should be glazed with safety glass or safety plastic to BS 6206 : 1981.2. Alternatively glass in these areasshould be in small panes OR3. If glazed with standard annealedglass these areas should be protected inside and out with a permanent screen4. Annealed glass thickness/dimension limits. Some annealedglass is considered suitable for usein public buildings for showrooms,offices etc. and will conform providing it does not exceed thethickness/dimension limitationsshown above.Large areas of glass in non-domesticbuildings should ‘manifest’ themselves with a line of pattern,logo etc. at 1500 mm above FFL,unless the presence of the glass ismade obvious by the use of mullions, transoms, wide frames,large handles or something similar.3. If annealed glass is used for lowlevel glazing then it must be protected inside andout with permanent screens. These should be at least 800 mm high, unclimbable, ie nothorizontal rails and designed so as to preventa 75 mm ø sphere touching the glazing.300FFL800250max�250max�1500800any450022501100any3000225011008mm10mm12mm15mm glassthicknessFFL3006MaterialsBrickwork and BlockworkBrick sizesThe work (actual) size of the standard brick is215 � 102.5 � 65 mmFor the co-ordinating size, which includes the width of onemortar joint, add 10 mm, i.e. 225 � 112.5 � 75 mmMetric modular sizes:190 � 90 � 65 mmOther less available brick sizes:215 � 102.5 � 50 mm215 � 102.5 � 73 mm215 � 102.5 � 80 mmWeights of brickskg/m3Blue 2405Engineering 2165Sand cement 2085Fire brick 1890London stock 1845Sand lime 1845Flettons 1795Red facings 1765Diatomaceous 480Bricks – continued192 Architect’s Pocket BookCompressive strengths and percentage water absorptionBrick N/mm2 water absorption % by massEngineering Class A > 70 50high-grade ceramic ware made fromwhite clays and finely ground minerals. All exposed surfacesare coated with an impervious non-crazing vitreous glaze.Used for sanitary ware, it is easy to clean but brittle comparedwith glazed stoneware.vitrified clayware Clay which is hard-burnt to about 1100ºCand therefore vitrified throughout. It has low water absorp-tion, and can be used unglazed for floor tiles, drainpipes etc.Can be fair cut with an angle grinder.198 Architect’s Pocket BookRunning bond Stack bond Spanish bondHerringbone – on face Herringbone – on edgeBasketweave – on face Basketweave – on edge Half-basketweaveConcrete – some types and treatmentsaerated concrete A lightweight concrete with no coarseaggregates, made of cement, lime, sand and chemical admix-tures which cause bubbles to make a cellular consistency. Ithas low strength but good insulation properties. It is easily cutand nailable. There are many grades, some unsuitable belowground. Water absorption will impair its thermal perfor-mance.bush hammering Tooling concrete or stone with a com-pressed air hammer to remove 1 to 6 mm of the outer skin toreveal a surface texture that improves its appearance.granolithic finish A thin topping of cement, granite chip-pings and sand laid over a concrete slab, preferably as amonolithic screed to provide a good wearing surface. Can bemade non-slip by sprinkling carborundum powder over thesurface before final trowelling.glass-reinforced concrete (GRC) Precast concrete, rein-forced with glass fibre to make thin panels with improvedstrength and impact resistance.polymer-impregnated concrete Concrete made with apolymer to improve the strength by filling all the voids nor-mally left in conventional concrete. Water absorption is thusreduced and the concrete has greater dimensional stability.refractory concrete Concrete made with high aluminacement and refractory aggregate, such as broken firebrick, towithstand very high temperatures.Materials 199StoneworkBuilding stone comes from three rock types:• Igneous rocks formed from cooled molten rock, e.g. granite• Metamorphic rocks formed from the re-crystallization ofprevious rocks after heat and pressure, e.g. slate and marble• Sedimentary rocks formed from ancient sedimentsdeposited on sea or river beds and then compacted or nat-urally cemented, e.g. limestone or sandstone.Typical building stones200 Architect’s Pocket BookStone County Colour Dry weight Compressivekg/m3 strengthkN/m2GranitesCornish Cornwall silvery grey 2 610 113 685Peterhead Grampian bright red 2 803 129 558Rubislaw Grampian bluish-grey 2 500 138 352SandstonesBramley Fell W Yorks. grey to buff 2 178 42 900Darley Dale Derbys. light grey 2 322 55 448Forest of Dean Glos. grey to blue 2 435 67 522Kerridge Derbys. buff 2 450 62 205Runcorn red Cheshire red & mottled 2 082 27 242LimestonesAncaster Lincs. cream to brown 2 515 23 380Bath Wilts. lt. brown to cream 2 082 24 024Clipsham Leics. pale cream to buff 2 322 29 172Mansfield Notts. creamy yellow 2 242 49 550Portland Dorset lt. brown to white 2 210 30 780Mortar mixes for stoneworkMaterials 201Typical mix Applicationcement : lime : sand 1 : 3 : 12 most building stoneslime : sand 2 : 5 most building stonescement : lime : sand 1 : 2 : 9 exposed detailscement : lime : sand 1 : 1 : 6 most sandstonescement : sand 1 : 3 only for dense granitePFA* : lime : sand 1 : 1 : 4 less durable stones in shelteredenvironment*Pulverised fuel ashJoints mm thicknessinternal marble cladding 1.5external cladding 2 to 3slate cladding 3large slabs 4.5polished granites 4.5fine ashlar 6 maximumrubble walls 12 to 18Sources: Building Construction – W. McKay,Stone in Building – Stone Federation GBDamp-proof courses (DPCs)DPCs provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of mois-ture from below, from above or horizontally. They can beflexible, semi-rigid or rigid. Rigid DPCs are only suitable forrising damp. Soft metal DPCs are expensive but safest forintricate situations. Cavity trays are needed above elementsthat bridge cavities to direct water to outside. DPCs should bebedded both sides in mortar. Seal DPCs to floor membranes.Upper and vertical DPCs should always lap over lower or hori-zontal ones. DPCs must not project into cavities where theymay collect mortar and bridge the cavity.Type Material Minimum Joint Application RemarksthicknessmmFlexible polyethylene 0.46 100 mm min H at base of walls, appropriates lateral polymer lap and sealed under cills, vertical movement; tough, based jambs easy to seal, expensive, can bepuncturedbitumen polymer 1.5 100 mm min H at base of walls,lap and sealed stepped; CT; V at jambsFlexible bitumen/hessian 3.8 100 mm min H at base of walls, hessian may decay, bitumen base lap and sealed under copings, cills; but OK if bitumen based CT, V at jambs not disturbed. If cold,warm DPC beforeuse, may extrudeunder high loads or temperaturesbitumen/hessian 4.4 100 mm min H at base of walls, lead lamination base/lead lap and sealed under copings, cills; gives extra tensile CT, V at jambs strengthSemi-rigid mastic asphalt 12.0 none H under copings grit should be addedfor key, liable toexpandlead 1.8 100 mm min, H under copings, corrodes in contact welted against chimney stacks with mortar,damp from protect by coating above both sides with bitumencopper 0.25 100 mm min, H under copings, good against welted against chimney stacks corrosion, difficult damp from to work, may stain above masonry greenRigid slate two courses laid to break H at base of very durable, 4.0 joint free-standing and bed in 1 : 3 retaining walls sand cementbrick to BS 3921 two courses laid to break H at base of good for150 joint free-standing and freestanding wallsretaining wallsH = horizontal; V = vertical; CT = cavity tray.202 Architect’s Pocket BookDamp-proof membranes (DPMs)DPMs are sheet or liquid membranes designed to resist dampcaused by capillary action. They do not have to perform aswell as tanking membranes, which must resist water pressure.DPMs may be positioned under site slabs providing the hard-core is smoothed with 25 mm minimum rolled sand or prefer-ably 25 mm smooth blinding concrete. This position is morevulnerable to damage than placing them over smooth fin-ished site slabs. In this position the membrane can preventsatisfactory bonding between slab and screed, so a thickscreed is needed, ideally at least 63 mm.DPMs must be carried up to lap or join DPCs in walls. Brush-applied membranes are better than sheets in this respect.Care must be taken not to penetrate membranes when laying.Any pipe ducts must be in position before screeds are poured,as any subsequent chasing could well damage the DPM.Type DescriptionLow density polyethylene film (LDPE) Min 0.3 mm thick. Cheapest DPM, protects againstmethane and radon gas. No good against any water pressure. Joints must be rigorously taped. Easy to penetrate on siteCold-applied bitumen solutions; coal tar; Ideally three coats. Must be carefully applied to avoid pitch/rubber or bitumen rubber emulsions thin patches and pinholesHot applied pitch or bitumen Ideally three coats. Must be carefully applied to avoid thin patches and pinholesLDPE plus bitumen sheet Not as easily displaced as LPDE film and easier to overlap.Small perforations less likely, as will ‘self heal’High density polyethyene (HDPE) with High performance PE core is coated both sides with bitumen to both faces bitumen, with upper surface bonded to this PE film.Underside has film which is released before layingEpoxy resin Two-coat system for newly laid concrete slabs which have not fully dried out. Second coat scattered with finesand. Suitable for moisture-sensitive flooring, e.g. PVC,cork, lino, woodMastic asphalt 12–16 mm thick, not often used under screeds but0.000061Capacity 28.32 cubic foot litre l 0.035310.01639 cubic inch litre l 61.012816.39 cubic inch millilitre ml 0.061024.546 UK gallon litre l 0.2199828.4125 fluid ounce mililitre ml 0.0352Mass 1.016 ton tonne t 0.984250.4536 pound kilogram kg 2.20458453.6 pound gram g 0.00220528.35 ounce gram g 0.03527Density 16.0185 pound/ft3 kilogram/m3 kg/m3 0.06243Force 4.4482 pound force newton N 0.2248114.59 pound f/foot newton/metre N/m 0.06854Pressure, stress4.882 pound/ft2 kilogram/m2 kg/m2 0.2048107.252 ton f/ft2 kilonewton/m2 kN/m2 0.00932447.8803 pound f/ft2 newton/m2 N/m2 0.020886894.76 pound f/in2 newton/m2 N/m2 0.000145Imperial to SI SI to ImperialEnergy 3.6 kilowatt hour megajoule MJ 0.27777Heat 1 055.0 Btu joule J 0.000948Heat flow0.000293 Btu/h kilowatt kW 3415.0Heat transfer5.67826 Btu/ft2h °F watt/m2 °C W/m2 °C 0.17611Thermal conductivity0.144228 Btu in/ft2h °F watt/m °C W/m °C 6.93347Cost 0.0929 £/sq foot £/sq metre £/m2 10.7639General Information 15Approximate metric/Imperial equivalentsLength Area1.5 mm ≈ 1/16” 1 hectare ≈ 21/2 acres3 mm ≈ 1/8” 0.4 hectare ≈ 1 acre6 mm ≈ 1/4”12.5 mm ≈ 1/2” Weight19 mm ≈ 3/4” 1 kilogram ≈ 21/4 lbs25 mm ≈ 1” 28 grams ≈ 1 ounce100 mm ≈ 4” 100 grams ≈ 31/2 ounces600 mm ≈ 2’0” 454 grams ≈ 1 lb2000 mm ≈ 6’8”3000 mm ≈ 10’0” Capacity1 litre ≈ 13/4 pints9 litres ≈ 2 gallonsPressure1.5 kN/m2 ≈ 30 lbs/ft22.5 kN/m2 ≈ 50 lbs/ft23.5 kN/m2 ≈ 70 lbs/ft25.0 kN/m2 ≈ 100 lbs/ft2Glass thickness2 mm ≈ 18 oz3 mm ≈ 24 oz4 mm ≈ 32 oz6 mm ≈ 1/4”16 Architect’s Pocket BookTemperature°C °F100 = 212 boiling37 = 98.6blood heat21 ≈ 70 living room19 ≈ 66 bedroom10 = 500 = 32 freezing�17.7 = 0Heat transfer1 Btu/ft2h °F ≈ 10 watt/m2 °CLighting10 lux ≈ 1 lumen/ft2Greek alphabetCapital Lower case Name English transliteration� � alpha a� � beta b� gamma g � delta d� epsilon e� � zeta z� � eta e� � theta th� � iota i� � kappa k� � lambda l� � mu m� � nu n� � xi x ! omicron o" # pi p$ % rho r& ' (()* sigma s) * tau t+ , upsilon u- . phi ph/ 0 chi ch, kh1 2 psi ps3 4 omega o*( at end of wordGeneral Information 17Geometric dataMeasurement of plane and solid figuresπ (pi) = 3.1416Circumferencecircle = π � diametercone = π � 1/2 major axis + 1/2 minor axisSurface areacircle = π � radius2, or 0.7854 � diameter2cone = 1/2 circumference � slant height + area of basecylinder = circumference � length + area of two endsellipse = product of axes � 0.7854 (approx)parabola = base � 2/3 heightparallelogram = base � heightpyramid = 1/2 sum of base perimeters � slant height + area of basesector of circle = (π � degrees arc � radius2) ÷ 360segment of circle = area of sector minus trianglesphere = π � diameter2triangle = 1/2 base � perpendicular heighttriangle(equilateral) = (side)2 � 0.433Volumecone = area of base � 1/3 perpendicular heightcylinder = π � radius2 � heightpyramid = area of base � 1/3 heightsphere = diameter3 � 0.5236wedge = area of base � 1/2 perpendicular height18 Architect’s Pocket BookNine regular solidsVarious types of polyhedra have exercised the minds of math-ematicians throughout the ages, including Euclid, whosegreat work The Elements was intended not so much as ageometry text book but as an introduction to the five regularsolids known to the ancient world. This work starts with theequilateral triangle and ends with the construction of theicosahedron.The five so-called Platonic solids form the first and simplestgroup of polyhedra. They have regular faces, all of whichtouch one another and the lines which make up any of thevertices form a regular polygon.Further variations of the regular polyhedra, unknown in ancienttimes, are the Kepler-Poinsot star polyhedra. In all four cases thevertex figures spring from pentagrams. These polyhedra can beformed from the regular dodecahedron and icosahedron.Kepler (1571–1630) found the two stellated dodecahedra,and Poinsot (1777–1859) discovered the great dodecahedraand the great icosahedron.General Information 1920 Architect’s Pocket BookTETRAHEDRONfour triangularfacesNETSPLANSFive platonic solidsCUBEsix square facesOCTAHEDRONeight triangular facesDODECAHEDRONtwelve pentagonalfacesICOSAHEDRONtwenty triangular facesGeneral Information 21NETSPLANSThe Kepler–Poinsot star polyhedraSMALL STELLATEDDODECAHEDRONGREAT STELLATEDDODECAHEDRONGREATDODECAHEDRONGREATICOSAHEDRONThis solid may bebuilt up with pyramids fixed toan icosahedronSource: Mathematical Models72°Golden sectionThe golden section or golden mean is an irrational proportionprobably known to the ancient Greeks and thought to bedivine by Renaissance theorists. It is defined as a line cut insuch a way that the smaller section is to the greater as thegreater is to the whole, thus:AC : CB = CB : ABThe ratio of the two lengths is called phi -.- =√5 + 1 = 1.61803 . . .2For approximate purposes it is 1 : 1.6 or 5 : 8.- is the ratio of line lengthsin any pentagram.The golden rectangle is one in which - is the ratio of one sideto the other.This is implicated in the mathematics of growth as demon-strated in the Fibonacci series 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 . . .where each number is the sum of the preceding two. Thisratio of successive numbers progressively approximates morenearly to the golden rectangle.22 Architect’s Pocket Book1.0 1.618A C BGeneral Information 23The Fibonacci spiral is a curvethat increases constantly insize without changing itsbasic shape. This is demonstrated byusing squares increasing in the Fibonacci scale i.e. 1, 2, 3, 5; from whichdiagram can be seen threenearly golden rectangles.Leonardo Fibonacci (c.1170–1230) was an Italian mathemati-cian who introduced arabic numerals to Christian Europe. He travelled extensively, particularly in North Africa where helearnt the decimal system and the use of zero. He publishedthis system in Europe but mathematicians were slow toadopt it.Le Corbusier used the Fibonacci series in his system of propor-tion ‘Le Modulor’.To draw a golden rectangle :Draw a square ABCD.Halve the base line at E.From this point draw a line tocorner C and with radius ECdrop an arc to find point F.The golden rectangle isAFGD as also is BFGC.The angle between the diagonal and the long side of a goldenrectangle is approximately 31.45°.1253D CBeq eqEGA FPaper sizesInternational paper sizesThe basis of the international series is a rectangle having anarea of one square metre (A0) the sides of which are in theproportion of 1 : √2. This is the proportion of the side anddiagonal of any square. All the A series are of this proportion,enabling them to be doubled or halved and remain in thesame proportion which is useful for photographic enlargementor reduction. A0 is twice A1 which is twice A2 and so on.Where larger sizes of A0 are needed the A is preceded by afigure, thus 4A is four times A0.The B series are sizes intermediate between any two A sizes.This series is used mostly for posters and charts. The C seriesare envelopes to suit the A sizes.DL or long sizes are obtained by dividing the A and B seriesinto three, four or eight equal parts parallel to the shorterside so that the proportion of 1:√2 is not maintained. In practice, the long sizes should be produced from the A series only.The dimensions of these series are of the trimmed or finishedsize.mm inches mm inchesA0 841 � 1189 331/8 � 463/4 B0 1000 �1414 393/8 � 555/8A1 594 � 841 233/8 � 331/8 B1 707 �1000 277/8 � 393/8A2 420 � 594 161/2 � 233/8 B2 500 � 707 195/8 � 277/8A3 297 � 420 113/4 � 161/2 B3 353 � 500 137/8 � 195/8A4 210 � 297 81/4 � 113/4 B4 250 � 353 97/8 � 137/8A5 148 � 210 57/8 � 81/4 B5 176 � 250 615/16 � 97/8A6 105 � 148 41/8 � 57/8 B6 125 � 176 415/16 � 615/16A7 74 �moreoften as a combined DPM/floor finish 20–25 mm thickand layed on a glass fibre isolating membraneEthylene propylene di-monomer (EPDM) 1.2 and 1.4 mm synthetic rubber sheet (Pirelli), strongand not affected by chemicals, exposure to ozone, UVlight, continuous wet, freeze–thaw cycles, microbe attack.Used for foundations, dams, reservoirs etc.Sources: Specification 94Ruberoid Building Products LtdMaterials 203204 Architect’s Pocket BookDampness in buildingsTypical causesWATER PENETRATION1 Defective haunching to chimney top2 Defective chimney flashing3 Slipped or cracked slates4 Lack of DPC under parapet coping5 Defective flashing to valley gutter6 Lack of cavity tray over window head7 Cracked RWP and blocked hopper8 Cracked asphalt to flat roof9 No asphalt upstand at junction of flat roof to wall10 Cracked rendering11 Mortar droppings on cavity ties transmitting water toinner skin12 Cracked window sill13 Defective paint and putty to window frame14 Lack of door threshold letting in driving rain15 Damp patch on wall from defective sealant round bathedge aboveRISING DAMP16 Earth bridging damp proof course17 No vertical tanking to earth retaining wall18 No DPC under timber joists on sleeper walll19 Faulty DPM under floorCONDENSATION20 No vapour barrier in flat roof causing interstitial condensation21 Blocked eaves ventilation to roof space22 Lack of ridge ventilator to ventilate roof space23 Lack of air brick to blocked up flue24 Cold spot condensation showing inside solid concrete lintel25 Damp low down on external walls in unventilated cupboards and behind pictures123522101321129782024191416 1817232515251164Source: Dampness in BuildingsMaterials 205Plaster and renderExternal renderingRendering mortars are essentially the same as those for layingmasonry, but should be made with clean washed plasteringsand. See p. 195 for the four mix grades and the table belowfor what to use where.Where possible, use the same mix for undercoats as for finish-ing coats, otherwise the undercoat should be stronger thanthe finishing coat.Strong backgrounds, such as concrete or engineering brick,may need an initial keying coat or spatterdash such as 1:11/2or 1:3 cement:sand thrown on and not trowelled.For severe exposures, two undercoats are preferable.On metal lathing, two undercoats are invariably needed.Rendering mixes for different backgrounds and exposuresUse Background Severe Moderate ShelteredFirst and dense, strong II II IIsubsequent moderately strong, porous III III IIIundercoats moderately weak, porous III IV IVmetal lathing I / II I / II I / IIFinal coats dense, strong III III IIImoderately strong, porous III IV IVmoderately weak, porous III IV IVmetal lathing III III III206 Architect’s Pocket BookPlaster and render glossaryaggregate Sand particles or crushed stone that form thebulk of a mortar or render.binder A component that hardens to bind aggregatestogether; normally lime and Portland cement.browning Undercoat plaster made from gypsum and sand. Itreplaced lime and sand ‘coarse stuff’. Now generally super-seded by pre-mixed lightweight plasters.cement Usually Portland cement, so called because it resem-bles Portland stone when set. It is a mixture of chalk and clayburnt in a kiln. When mixed with water it hardens in aprocess known as hydration.dash External rendering thrown onto a wall by hand or appli-cator.dry dash Coarse aggregate thrown onto a wet render coat,giving an exposed aggregate finish.dry hydrated lime Ordinary (non-hydraulic) lime producedas a dry powder by adding just enough water to slake thequicklime (adding more water produces lime putty).gypsum A solid white mined mineral, the main constituent ofwhich is calcium sulphate, used as a binder in gypsum plaster.gypsum plaster Plaster made of gypsum with lightweightaggregates and a retarder. It is unsuitable for external workor wet areas. It is used as a smooth finishing coat.hemihydrate plaster A plaster made by gently heating gyp-sum to drive off most of its chemically combined water tobecome half-hydrated. In its pure form it is Plaster of Paris,but with the addition of retarders such as keratin it becomesthe basic material for all gypsum plaster, and is known asretarded hemihydrate plaster.hydrated lime Quicklime slaked with water.hydraulic lime Lime that can set in the absence of air underwater. It is made by burning lime with up to 22 per cent clay.Keene’s cement Hard burnt anhydrous (water-free) gypsummixed with alum to form a plaster, which can be trowelled toa smooth, intensely hard finish.lightweight plaster Plaster with lightweight aggregatessuch as expanded perlite combined with retarded hemihy-drate plaster. It has low shrinkage and is thermally insulating.lime Chalk or limestone burnt in a kiln to 825°C or more.lime putty Hydrated lime soaked to give it plasticity. Used forlime plasters, renders, mortars, grouts and limewash.mortar A mixture of sand, cement and water, used primarilyfor bedding and pointing brickwork, laying floor tiles, and asundercoats to plaster and final coats of external walls.non-hydraulic lime High calcium lime made by slaking rela-tively pure limestone. Mortars and renders made from thislime set slowly and are relatively soft, but accommodate nor-mal building movement well and have high levels of vapourpermeability and porosity.pebble dash A dry dash finish in which clean washed peb-bles are pushed into wet render and left exposed.plaster Usually gypsum plaster for interiors, or cement renderfor exterior work.pozzolana A natural volcanic silica dust originally fromPozzuoli, Italy. When mixed with lime it sets hard, even underwater, making Roman cement. The term pozzolanic additivenow includes other aggregates, such as pulverized fuel ash(PFA) and brick dust, which have similar hydraulic properties.rendering Mortar undercoats and finishing coats for externalwalls and to receive tiling in wet areas.retarder Added to cement, plaster or mortar to slow downthe initial rate of setting by inhibiting hydration.quicklime Lime before it has been slaked. It reacts stronglywith water to produce hydrated lime.spatter dash Cement and sand in a very wet mix, sometimeswith a binding agent, flicked on in small blobs with an applica-tor. Used to create a key for backgrounds with poor suction.stucco Smooth rendering, originally lime and sand but nowcement lime mortar. Often with decorative mouldings shapedto imitate rusticated masonry or column embellishments.tyrolean finish A spattered textured render achieved bybeing thrown against a wall with a hand-operated applicator.Sources: The Penguin Dictionary of Building Illustrated Dictionary of BuildingMaterials 207208 Architect’s Pocket BookPre-mixed plastersPre-mixed plasters are made from gypsum, which is a naturalmineral deposit – calcium sulphate dihydrate. They shouldconform to BS 1191 Part 2 : 1973 Specification for gypsumbuilding plasters.Pre-mixed plasters should not be used in continuously damp orhumid places, nor should they be used where the temperatureexceeds 43°C. Gypsum plasters are unsuitable for externalwork because gypsum is partially soluble in water.British Gypsum have two brand names, ‘Carlite’ and ‘Thistle’,which they keep for historical rather than functional significance:Carlite Browning An undercoat plaster for solid back-grounds of moderate suction withan adequate mechanical key.Carlite HSB Browning An undercoat plaster for solid back-grounds of high suction with anadequate mechanical key.Carlite Bonding Coat An undercoat plaster for low suc-tion backgrounds such as plaster-board, concrete or other surfacestreated with a PVAC agent.Carlite Finish A final coat plaster for all threeCarlite undercoat plasters.Thistle Hardwall An undercoat plaster with highimpact resistance and quicker-dry-ing surface. May be applied by handor machine.Thistle Multi-Finish A final coat plaster for a wide rangeof backgrounds.Thistle Board Finish A final coat plaster for plasterboard.Materials 209Thistle Dri-Coat A cement-based undercoat plasterfor old walls, where plaster hasbeen removed and a chemical DPCinserted.Thistle Renovating An undercoat plaster containing per-lite and additives to promote earlysurface drying when applied to struc-tures containing residual moisture.Thistle Renovating Final coat plaster for use with ThistleFinish Renovating plaster. Contains afungicide and should be applied assoon as the undercoat is set.Thistle Universal One coat plaster suitable for mostOne Coat backgrounds with a smooth whitefinish. May be applied by hand ormachine.Pre-mixed plastersSelection guide and coat thickness in mm210 Architect’s Pocket BookCarlite ThistleBackground Browning HSB Bonding Finish Hardwall Multi- Board Dri- Renovat- Renovat- Univ.Browning Coat Finish Finish Coat ing ing One-Finish CoatPlasterboard 8+ 2 2 2 5 Dry lining 2 2foil-backed &thermallaminateboardsBrick 11 or 11+ 2 11+ 2 11+ 2 13wallsDense 11+ 2 11+ 2 11+ 2 13concreteblocksLightweight 11 or 11+ 2 11+ 2 11+ 2 13concreteblocksNormal 8+ 2 8+ 2 10ballastconcrete *Expanded 11+ 2 11+ 2 13metallathingStone & brick 2 or 2 11+walls injectedwith a DPC* Concrete which is exceptionally smooth will require a PVAC agent. Very level surfaces may be plastered with a single 2 mm coat of ThistleMulti-Finish or Board Finish.Source: British Gypsum LtdMaterials 211MetalsMetals commonly used in the construction industryName Symbol Atomic Descriptionnumber*Aluminium Al 13 Lightweight, fairly strong metal normally used as an alloy forcastings, sheet or extrusionsBrass – – An alloy containing zinc and more than 50% copper. Easilyformed, strong and corrosion resistantBronze – – An alloy of copper and tin, sometimes combined with otherelements. Hard and corrosion-resistantCopper Cu 29 A durable, malleable metal, easy to form but hardens quicklywhen worked and needs annealing. Good electrical and ther-mal conductivityIron Fe 26 A heavy metal, the fourth most abundant element on theearth’s crust. Almost always alloyed with other elementsLead Pb 82 The heaviest of the heavy metals, dull blue grey, easily fusible,soft, malleable and very durableStainless steel – – An alloy of steel and up to 20% chromium and 10% nickel.Corrosion-resistant but more difficult to fashion than carbonsteelSteel – – An alloy of iron and a small, carefully controlled proportion ofcarbon, normally less than 1%Tin Sn 50 A metal nearly approaching silver in whiteness and lustre, high-ly malleable and taking a high polish. Used to form alloys suchas bronze, pewter etc.Titanium Ti 22 Relatively light, strong transitional metal found in beach sands.As strong as steel but 45% lighter, and twice as strong as alu-minium but 60% heavierZinc Zn 30 A hard, brittle, bluish white metal, malleable and ductilebetween 95° and 120°C obtained from various ores. Corrodes25 times more slowly than steel*A ratio of the average mass of atoms in a given sample to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon 12 atom.Bi-metal compatibilityContact between dissimilar metals should be avoided wherepossible.Where contact cannot be avoided and moisture may be pre-sent, metals should be separated as shown in the table below.Stainless steel Mild steel Copper/bronze Cast iron AluminiumStainless steel ✔ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗Mild steel ✗ ✔ ✗ ✓ ✗Copper/bronze ✓ ✗ ✔ ✗ ✗Cast iron ✗ ✓ ✗ ✔ ✗Aluminium ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✔✔ = may be in contact; ✓ = may be in contact in dry conditions; ✗ = should not be used in contact.Metals – some commonly used industrial techniquesaluminium extrusions Aluminium sections made by pushingaluminium through a series of dies until the required intricateshapes are obtained.brazing A simple, inexpensive way of joining two pieces ofhot metal with a film of copper-zinc alloy, a hard solder alsoreferred to as the filler. Brazed steel joints are less strong thanwelded joints.cast iron An alloy of iron and carbon containing more than 1.7per cent carbon (normally 2.4–4 per cent). Components aremade by casting from remelted pig (ingot) iron with cast ironand steel scrap. It has low melting point and flows well, and isuseful for more intricate shapes than steel or wrought iron.forging (smithing) The act of hammering metal into shapewhen it is red-hot, traditionally on an anvil. Formerly referredto iron, but now includes steel, light alloys and non-ferrousmetals worked with power hammers, drop stamps andhydraulic forging machines.shot blasting Cleaning metal surfaces by projecting steelshot with a jet of compressed air. Used as a preparation forpainting or metal coating.sweating Uniting metal parts by holding them togetherwhile molten solder flows between them, as in a capillaryjoint, which is a spigot and socket joint in metal tubing.tempering Reducing the brittleness of steel by heating andslow cooling (annealing).welding Joining pieces of metal made plastic or liquid byheat and/or pressure. A filler metal whose melting tempera-ture is the same as that of the metal to be jointed may alsobe used. Arc welding fuses metals together with an electricarc, often with a consumable metal electrode.wrought iron Iron with a very low carbon content(0.02–0.03 per cent). It is very malleable and cannot be hard-ened by tempering. It is soft, rusts less than steel but is moreexpensive, so it has largely been replaced by mild steel. Usedfor chains, hooks, bars and decorative ironwork.212 Architect’s Pocket BookMaterials 213Metal finishesanodizing A protective durable film of oxide formed by dip-ping an aluminium alloy object into a bath of chromic or sul-phuric acid through which an electric current is passed. Thefilm may be coloured with dyes.chromium plating The electrolytic deposition of chromiumonto other metals to produce a very hard, bright finish. Whenapplied to iron or steel, chromium adheres best if a layer ofnickel or copper is first deposited.galvanizing A coating for steel which is quite durable andgives good protection against corrosion in moderate condi-tions. Components are hot dipped in molten zinc or coatedwith zinc electrolytically.powder coating Polyester, polyurethane, acrylic and epoxyplastics sprayed and heat-cured onto metals such as alumini-um or galvanized steel for a 50–100-micron thick film.Finished components can also be hot dipped in polyethyleneor nylon for a 200–300-micron thick film.sherardizing A protective coating of zinc on small items suchas nuts and bolts, which are rolled for 10 hours in a drumcontaining sand and zinc dust heated to 380°C. The coatingis thin but the zinc diffuses into the steel to form a zinc alloy.It does not peel off, distorts less and is more durable than gal-vanizing.stove enamelling Drying of durable enamel paints by heat,normally over 65ºC, either in a convection oven or by radiantheat lamps.vitreous enamelling A glazed surface finish produced byapplying powdered glass, dry or suspended in water, which isfused onto metal. This is a true enamel – not enamel paint.Sources: The Penguin Dictionary of BuildingIllustrated Dictionary of BuildingRoofing slates214 Architect’s Pocket BookType Size mm No./m2 Batten No./m2 Batten No./m2 Battengauge gauge gauge50 mm lap 75 mm lap 100 mm lapPrincesses 610 � 355 10.06 280 10.55 267 11.05 255Duchesses 610 � 305 11.71 280 12.28 267 12.86 255Small Duchesses 560 � 305 12.86 255 13.55 242 14.26 230Marchionesses 560 � 280 14.01 255 14.76 242 15.53 230Wide Countesses 510 � 305 14.26 230 15.11 217 15.99 205Countesses 510 � 255 17.05 230 18.07 217 19.13 205Wide Viscountesses 460 � 255 19.13 205 20.42 192 21.79 180Viscountesses 460� 230 21.21 205 22.64 192 24.15 180Wide ladies 405 � 255 22.16 177 23.77 165 25.80 152Ladies 405 � 205 27.56 177 29.56 165 32.09 152Grade Thickness WeightBest 4 mm 31 kg/m2Medium Strong 5 mm 35 kg/m2Heavies 6 mm 40 kg/m2Source: Alfred McAlpine Slate LtdRoofingTiles, slates and shingles Typical minimum pitchesBituminous shingles 17°Cedar shingles 14°Cedar shakes 20°Clay tiles – plain 35°Clay tiles – interlocking 25°Concrete tiles – plain 35°Concrete tiles – interlocking 17.5°Fibre cement slates 20°Natural slates 22.5°Stone slates – sandstone and limestone 30°Note: In areas of high winds and driving rain, these minimumpitches may not be advisable.Materials 215Roofing tilesCoverage relates to tiles laid at the maximum gauge. The number of tiles willincrease as gauge decreases.Weights are approximate and relate to tiles laid at maximum gauge. Weightswill increase as gauge decreases.BattensAll tiles may be fixed to 38 � 25 mm battens with supports atmaximum 600 mm centres. Battens for plain clay tiles may bereduced to 38 �19 mm when fixed at 450 mm centres.Matching accessoriesAccessories made in materials to match the tiles include thefollowing: Universal angle ridge tiles, mono ridge tiles, specificangle ridge and hip tiles, ornamental ridge tiles, block-endridge tiles, cloaked verge tiles, ridge ventilation tiles, ridge gasflue tiles, vent tiles for soil pipes and fan ducts.uPVC accessoriesThese include devices for fixing ridge and hip tiles withoutmortar and for providing under-eaves ventilation and abut-ment ventilation for lean-to roofs.Sources: Redland Roofing, Marley Building Materials LtdClay Clay Concrete Concrete Concreteinterlocking interlocking interlocking interlockingPLAIN SINGLE PANTILE DOUBLE ROMAN DOUBLE PANTILE FLAT SLATESize mm 265 � 165 380 � 260 418 � 330 420 � 330 430 � 380Pitch min 35° 22.5° 17.5° 22.5° 17.5°Pitch max 90° 90° 90° 44° 44°Headlap min 65 mm 65 mm 75 mm 75 mm 75 mm Gauge max 100 mm 315 mm 343 mm 345 mm 355 mm Cover width 165 mm 203 mm 300 mm 296 mm 343 mm Coverage 60/m2 15.6/m2 9.7/m2 9.8/m2 8.2/m2Weight @ max 77 kg/m2 42 kg/m2 45 kg/m2 46 kg/m2 51 kg/m2gaugeWeight per 1000 1.27 tonnes 2.69 tonnes 4.69 tonnes 4.7 tonnes 6.24 tonnes ShinglesShingles are taper sawn from blocks of western red cedar.No.1 grade Blue Label is the premium grade for roofs andwalls.SizeThe standard size is 400 mm long in varying widths from 75 to350 mm. The thickness tapers from 3 mm at the head to 10 mmat the butt, or tail, end.ColourReddish-brown, fading to silver-grey when weathered.TreatmentShingles are available untreated, tanalized, or with fire retar-dants. Tanalizing is recommended for external use. Some localauthorities may insist on a fire retardant treatment dependingon the nature of the location.Fancy buttThese are shingles with shaped butt ends such as diamond,half round, arrow, fish scale, hexagonal, octagonal etc. Theseare suitable for pitches over 22°.AccessoriesPre-formed cedar hip and ridge units 450 mm long, are avail-able which are normally fixed over 150 mm wide strip of F1roofing felt.Pitch14° minimum pitch14° to 20° maximum recommended gauge = 95 mmOver 20° maximum recommended gauge = 125 mmVertical walling maximum recommended gauge = 190 mmCoverageShingles are ordered by the bundle. One bundle coversapproximately 1.8 m2 @ 100 mm gauge.216 Architect’s Pocket BookWeight400 mm long @ 95 mm gaugeuntreated 8.09 kg/m2tanalized 16.19 kg/m2with fire retardant 9.25 kg/m2BattensShingles are fixed to 38 � 19 mm battens with a 6 mm gapbetween adjacent shingles using silicon bronze nails – twonails to each shingle. Nails are positioned 19 mm in from sideedge and 38 mm above the butt line of the course above.Underlays are not normally recommended except in cases ofsevere exposure. For warm roofs, counter battens will berequired between the shingle batten and the insulation board.FlashingsBituminous paint should be applied to metal flashings toavoid contact between shingles and metal and subsequentstaining. As an alternative, GRP valleys and flashings may bemore suitable.Source: John Brash & Co Ltd.Materials 217ThatchWater reedPhragmites communis, grown in British and Continental riversand marshes. Norfolk reed is the finest thatching material.Water reed thatch is found in East Anglia, the South Coast, S Wales and NE Scotland.Combed wheat reedWinter wheat straw, nowadays ‘Maris Huntsman’, which ispassed through a comber. Butt ends are aligned to form faceof thatch. Found in the West Country. Sometimes calledDevon Reed.Long wheat strawThreshed wheat straw, wetted and prepared by hand. Ears andbutts are mixed up and a greater length of stem is exposed.Found in central, southern and SE regions of England.PitchRecommended pitch is 50°, minimum 45° and maximum 60°.WeightApproximately 34 kg/m2.NettingThis is essential to preserve the thatch from bird and rodentdamage. 20 or 22 gauge galvanised wire mesh should last 10to 15 years.SedgeCladium mariscus is a marsh plant with a rush-like leaf. It is stillused in the fens and for ridges to Norfolk reed thatch.HeatherCalluna vulgaris was once in general use in non-corn growingareas such as Dartmoor and the NE and can still occasionally beseen in Scotland.218 Architect’s Pocket BookThatching dataMaterials 219Water reed Combed wheat Long wheatreed strawLength 0.9 m–1.8 m 1.2 m 1.2 mCoat 300 mm 300–400 mm 400 mmthicknessCoverage 80–100 bundles / 9.3 m2 1 tonne / 32 m2 1 tonne / 36.6 m2(1 bundle = 300 mm Ø)Lifespan 50–70 years 20–40 years 10–20 yearsBattens 255 mm 150–230 mm 150 mm(38 3 25 mm)centresSources: Thatch, A Manual for Owners, Surveyors, Architectsand BuildersThe Care and Repair of Thatched Roofs, SPABLeadLead sheet for the building industry may be either milled leadsheet to BS 1178:1982 or machine cast lead sheet covered byAgrément Certificates 86/1764 and 91/2662.Cast lead sheet is also still made by specialist firms using thetraditional method of running molten lead over a bed of pre-pared sand. This is mainly used for replacing old cast leadroofs and ornamental leadwork.Milled lead sheet is the most commonly available having about85 per cent of the market. There are no significant differencesin the properties, performance or cost between cast andmilled lead sheet. Cast lead sheet at first appears slightly dark-er and less shiny than milled, but is indistinguishable sixmonths after installation.ThicknessChoice of thickness depends upon use. Additional thicknesswill cope better with thermal movement, mechanical damageand resist windlift. It will also provide more material for dress-ing and bossing into shape.SizesLead sheet is specified by its BS code number or its thicknessin millimetres. The range of metric sizes corresponds closely tothe former imperial sizes which were expressed in lb/sq.ft. Theends of lead coils may also carry colour markings for easyrecognition as shown below.220 Architect’s Pocket BookBS Thickness Weight Colour ApplicationCode no. mm kg/m2 code3 1.32 14.99 green soakers4 1.80 20.41 blue soakers, flashings5 2.24 25.40 red soakers, flashings, gutters, walland roof coverings6 2.65 30.05 black gutters, wall and roof coverings7 3.15 35.72 white gutters, roof coverings8 3.55 40.26 orange gutters and flat roofsSheet sizeLead sheet may be supplied cut to size or as large sheets 2.4 mwide and up to 12 m long.For flashings, coils are available in code 3, 4 and 5 lead and inwidths from 150 to 600 mm in steps of 50 mm, and 3 m or 6 min length.WeightTo determine the weight of a piece of lead, multiply thelength � width (m) � thickness (mm) � 11.34 = kgs.JointsMaximum spacingMaterials 221Flat Roof 0-3° Pitched Roof Pitched Roof Wall Cladding10°–60° 60°–80°BS Joints Joints Joints JointsJoints Joints Vertical HorizontalCode no. with fall across fall with fall across fall with fall across fall joints joints4 500 1500 500 1500 500 1500 500 15005 600 2000 600 2000 600 2000 600 20006 675 2250 675 2250 675 2250 600 20007 675 2500 675 2400 675 2250 650 22508 750 3000 750 2500 750 2250 700 2250Parapet and Tapered GuttersBS maximum spacing of drips maximum overall girthCode no. mm mm4 1500 7505 2000 8006 2250 8507 2700 9008 3000 1000222 Architect’s Pocket BookLead – continuedFlashingsTo ensure long life flashings should never exceed 1.0 m inlength for code 3 lead and 1.5 m in length for codes 4 and 5.Flashings should lap a minimum of 100 mm horizontally.Vertical laps should be a minimum as shown below.Roof pitch Lap mm Roof pitch Lap mm11° 359 40° 11515° 290 50° 10020° 220 60° 8530° 150 90° 75DPCsCode 4 lead sheet is suitable for most DPCs. This may beincreased to code 5 where a 50 mm cavity is exceeded.Lead DPCs should be covered both sides with bituminouspaint to avoid the risk of corrosion from free alkali in freshPortland cement.CondensationIn well heated buildings, warm moist air may filter through theroof structure and condense on the underside of the lead cov-ering, leading in the long term to serious corrosion. Ensurethat there is ventilation between the timber decking support-ing the lead and any insulation.CorrosionLead may be used in close contact with copper, zinc, iron andaluminium. It may be attacked by organic acids from hard-woods and cedar shingles.Sources: Lead Sheet AssociationLead Development AssociationMidland Lead Manufacturers LtdCopper roofingCopper is classified as a noble material. It has a long life(75–100 years), is corrosion resistant and is lightweight andworkable. It is more resistant to creep on vertical surfaces thanlead and can cover flat or curved surfaces.Copper for roofing, flashings and DPCs should conform toBS 2870 : 1980.Copper strip = 0.15 to 10 mm thickness, of any width and notcut to length. It is usually supplied in 50 kgcoils. It is cheaper than sheet.Copper sheet = 0.15 to 10 mm thick flat material of exactlength and over 450 mm wide.Copper foil = 0.15 mm thick or less.Normal roofing thickness is 0.6 mm; 0.45 mm is now consid-ered sub-standard. 0.7 mm is used for pre-patinated coppersheet and for sites with exposure to high winds.Pre-patinated copper was first used in Germany in the late1980s. 0.7 mm thick copper sheets have a chemically inducedcopper chloride patina. This produces the blue/green appear-ance which is more even than the streaky appearance of somenaturally induced patinas. The sheet size is limited to 3 m inlength so is not suited for long strip roofing.Materials 223224 Architect’s Pocket BookLongstrip copper roofingThis method was introduced to the UK from the Continent in1957. Factory or site formed copper trays are attached to afully supporting deck with standing seams or roll joints. Thecopper used has a harder temper and special expansion clipsat seams allow longitudinal movement. The main advantage isabsence of cross joints on sloping roofs and drips on flat roofs,which saves labour and reduces cost. Suitable for pitches from6° to 90°. Bay size = 525 mm centres � 10.0 m. In exposed sites baywidths should be reduced to 375 mm centres.After 10 m in length, 50 mm high drips should be placedacross fall.Weight0.6 mm @ 525 mm centres = 5.7 kg/m2FallsMinimum fall for any copper roof 1 : 60 (17 mm in 1 metre)Minimum fall for copper gutters 1 : 80 (12 mm in 1 metre)Parapet guttersMaximum length of any one sheet is 1.8 m. Thereafter 50 mmminimum deep drips should be introduced. Continuous drip-ping of rainwater from tiled or slated roofs may perforate gutterlinings. Sacrificial strips should be placed in gutters and replacedwhen worn.Step flashingMaximum 1.8 m long with welted joints. Single step flashings,with each end overlapping 75 mm, may be easier to repairwhere small areas corrode.LayingLay with underfelt of impregnated flax felt with ventilation tospace or voids under decking to avoid condensation. Fixings arecopper clips (cleats) secured by copper nails or brass screws todecking. Avoid any use of soft solder to prevent electrolyticaction. Use mastic between apron flashings and pipes.DPCsCopper is highly suitable for DPCs as it is flexible and notattacked by cement mortar. Joints should overlap 100 mm.CorrosionCopper can be corroded by sulphur dioxide from chimneysunless stacks rise well clear of roof. Copper will corrode whenin contact with damp wood impregnated with some fire retar-dants and from the run-off from western red cedar cladding.Ammonia (from cats’ urine) may cause cracking. Copper willcorrode aluminium, zinc and steel if in direct contact or indi-rect contact from water run-off. Copper may leave greenstains on masonry.PatinaThis takes 5–20 years to form, depending on location. It is athin, insoluble layer of copper salts which protects the underly-ing material from atmospheric attacks. It is generally green butmay look buff or black in soot–laden air.Materials 225Traditional copper roofingThere are two traditional methods of copper roofing:Batten rolls40 mm high shaped wooden rolls are laid parallel to bay slope.Bay sheets are turned up sides of roll and covered with coppercapping strip. Ridge rolls are 80 mm high. Suitable for flat andpitched roofs.Bay size = 500 mm centres � 1.8 m.Standing seamsThese are suitable for side joints on roofs which are not sub-ject to foot traffic, and may be used for roofs over 6°. Theseams are double welted joints 20–25 mm high.Bay size = 525 mm centres � 1.8 m.Cross jointsAt right angles to wood rolls or standing seams. They shouldbe double lock cross welts. Above 45° pitch, single lock crosswelts may be used. Stagger cross joints in adjacent bays toavoid too much metal at seams. On flat roofs, drips 65 mmdeep should be introduced at maximum 3 m centres (see Fallsabove).Maximum sheet sizesSheet sizes should not exceed 1.3 m2, reduced to 1.10 m2where 0.45 mm thick sheet is used.Sources: Copper Development AssociationBroderick Structures Ltd226 Architect’s Pocket BookMaterials 227Aluminium roofingAluminium is strong but lightweight and malleable, has a longlife and low maintenance. A high proportion of recycled mat-erial is used in its manufacture.The most readily available recommended roofing grade is1050A, which is 99.5 per cent pure aluminium, with H2 tem-per. 0 temper (fully soft) is suitable for flashings or intricateshaping. See CP 143 Part 15 1973 (1986) for application. Aluminium is normally available in ‘mill finish’ which weathersto a matt grey, staying light in unpolluted areas but darkeningin industrial atmospheres. It can also be supplied with a facto-ry applied PVF2 paint in a limited range of colours. Avoid dark,heat-absorbing shades.Thickness0.8 mm is recommended roofing gauge.Sheet width450 mm standard.Bay widthTypically 380 mm; longstrip typically 525 mm; batten roll typi-cally 390 mm.Bay lengthTraditional standing seam - 3 m maximum rising to 6 m forroofs pitched above 10°.Longstrip – 10 m maximum is typical but is available up to 50 m.Weight0.8 mm @ 525 mm centres = 2.6 kg/m2.FallsMinimum 1 : 60.FixingsAll aluminium, including adjacent flashings and gutters.228 Architect’s Pocket BookAluminium roofing – continuedJointsTraditional standing seam, longstrip standing seam and battenroll.CorrosionAluminium is corroded by contact with brass and copper.Direct contact with and run-off from lead should be protectedwith a barrier of bituminous paint. Zinc is sacrificial to alumini-um which can lead to premature failure of zinc coated steel fix-ings. Avoid contact with wood preservatives and acidic timbersby the use of polythene barrier membranes.Source: Hoogovens Aluminium BuildingSystems LtdZinc roofingZinc is versatile, ductile, economical, has good resistance toatmospheric corrosion and is suitable for marine locations.During the 1960s zinc alloys replaced commercial zinc forroofing. The material is 99.9 per cent pure zinc alloyed withtitanium and copper. There are two types, A and B, whichshould conform to BS 6561 : 1985. For installation see CP 143Part 5 : 1964.Type AFine, even grain structure with good resistance to creep andthermal movement. Primarily used for roofing. Available insheets and coils.Recommended roofing thicknesses are 0.65, 0.70 and 0.80 mm.Typical sheet size: 2438 � 914 mm (8’ � 3’) in thicknessesfrom 0.50 to 1.0 mm.Typical coil size: 500, 610, 686, 914 and 1000 mm widths upto 21 m long.Zinc can also be supplied pre-patinated in 0.70 mm thicknesswith blue-grey colour.Type BRolled to a soft temper and used mainly for flashings – also forcoverings to small balconies, canopies, dormer windows andfor DPCs. Available in coils.Typical coil size: 150, 240, 300, 480 and 600 mm widths by10 m long.Bay sizesFrom 500 to 900 mm.Typical longstrip bay: 525 mm centres with standing seam and540 mm centres with batten roll.Maximum bay length: 10 m.Weight0.7 mm @ 525 mm centres = 5.1 kg/m2.FallsMinimum 3° but ponding may occur so 7° is the minimumrecommended pitch, particularly for longer bays.Side jointsStanding seam and batten roll – similar to copper.Cross jointsBetween 3° and 10° – 75 mm high drips.Between 10° and 25° – single lock welt with additional sol-dered undercloak.Between 25° and 90° – single lock welt with 25 mm under-cloak and 30 mm overcloak.FixingsNails = galvanized steel or SS.Screws = galvanized or zinc anodized steel or SS.Clips = zinc to match roofing type.Solder = 60 : 40 lead/tin alloy.Liquid flux = Bakers fluid or killed spirits of salt.Materials 229230 Architect’s Pocket BookZinc roofing – continuedCorrosionZinc is non-staining and contact is possible with iron, steel,aluminium, lead and stainless steel. Run-off from unprotectediron and steel may cause staining but no harm. Zinc shouldnot be used directly or indirectly from run-off with copperwhich will cause corrosion. Zinc may be corroded by contactwith western red cedar, oak, sweet chestnut, certain fire retar-dants and soluble salts in walling materials.Sources: Zinc Development AssociationMetra Non-Ferrous Metals LtdStainless steel roofingStainless steel is lightweight, can be pre-formed, has a low co-efficient of expansion, high tensile strength, can be worked atany time of year, is resistant to corrosion attack by condensa-tion, and can match and be used alongside lead. Stainlesssteel for roofing should conform to BS 1449 Part 2: 1983.There are two grades normally used for roofing:Type 304: (Austenitic) Suitable for most UK situations but notwithin 15 miles of the sea or in aggressively indus-trial atmospheres – 0.38 mm thick.Type 316: (Austenitic Molybdenum) Highest grade which isnow the standard grade recommended, suitablefor all atmospheres – 0.4 mm thick.Stainless steel is naturally reflective but low reflectivity isachieved by:Mechanical rolling - Rolling sheets under pressure througha set of engraving tools.Terne coating - Hot dipping into lead/tin alloy whichweathers to form a mid-grey patinasimilar to lead.Sheet widthCoils vary typically 500 mm and 650 mm wide but sometimesstill imperial 457 mm (18”) and 508 mm (20”).Bay width385 mm and 435 mm centres with standing seams, 425 mm and 450 mm centres with batten rolls.Bay lengthMaximum is normally 9 m but is available up to 15 m. Over 3 m expansion clips must be used.Weight0.4 mm @ 435 mm centres = 4 kg/m2.FallsMinimum 5° up to 90°. 9° minimum recommended forexposed sites.JointsTraditional standing seam, longstrip standing seam and battenroll.Cross joints between 5° and 12° should be lap lock welt.Cross joints between 13° and 20° double lock welt.Cross joints between 21° and 90° single lock welt.FixingsStainless steel throughout for all clips, nails and screws.CorrosionResistant to most chemicals. Hydrochloric acid, used to cleanmasonry, will cause corrosion. Contact with copper may causestaining but otherwise no harm. Migrant rust marks can occurfrom the sparks of carbon steel cutting/grinding machines. It isnot attacked by cement alkalis, acids in timber or run-off fromlichens.Sources: Broderick Structures LtdLee Steel Strip LtdMaterials 231Profiled metal sheetProfiled metal sheet may be used for both roofing andcladding. Profiling thin metal sheet gives stiffness, providinggreater strength. The deeper the profile, the stronger thesheet and greater the span. Bolder profiles cast darker shad-ows and may therefore be preferred aesthetically. Coated steelis lowest in cost but limited in life to the durability of the fin-ish. Aluminium develops its own protective film but is lessresistant to impact. Cladding to lower parts of buildingsshould be protected by guard rails or other devices. Avoidcomplex building shapes to simplify detailing. Profiled sheetsare quick to erect, dismantle and repair. The most commonprofile is trapezoidal.Curved profiled sheetRadiused corners may be achieved by using crimped profiledsheets. Typical minimum external radius is 370 mm. Non-crimped profiled sheets may be pre-formed to a minimumradius of 3 m which may be useful for barrel vaulting. Ordinaryprofiled sheets may be curved slightly on site. As a rule ofthumb, the depth of the trough in mm gives the maximumcurve in metres. Mitred units are available for both internaland external corners with flashings purpose-made to match.Thickness0.5 to 1.5 mm. Sheet width500 to 1000 mm.Trough depth20 to 70 mm for roofing – depths up to 120 mm are normallyused for structural decking.Weight0.9 mm - 3.7 kg/m2.232 Architect’s Pocket BookMaterials 233Falls1.5° (1 : 40) minimum.FinishesHot dip galvanizing, stove and vitreous enamelling, terne coat-ing, mill finish aluminium, PVC and PVF2 colour coatings,composite bitumen mineral fibres etc.Source: Rigidal Industries LtdFlat roofs – non-metallicA flat roof is defined as having a fall not greater than 10° (1 : 6).BS 6229 : 1982 Flat roofs with continuously supported cover-ings deals with design principles.Design considerationsA flat roof must be structurally rigid, and have substantial andcontinuous support for the membrane, provision for move-ment joints, rainwater disposal, thermal design, condensationavoidance, wind resistance, consideration for roof penetra-tions and appropriate protection of the membrane.RainwaterFlat roofs should have a minimum fall of 1 : 80. However, toallow for construction tolerances, a design fall of minimum 1 : 50is desirable.The fail safe drainage of flat roofs is to fall to external gutters,less good is via scuppers in parapet walls to external RWPs.Where internal RWPs are planned, position them away fromparapet edges where debris will collect and it is difficult tomake a watertight seal. Ideally they should be sited at pointsof maximum deflection.Avoid only one outlet in a contained roof as this may block,causing water to rise above upstands and cause damage fromwater penetration or from overloading the structure.234 Architect’s Pocket BookWhere roofs meet walls, upstands must be a minimum of 150 mmhigh. They should be protected with lead, copper or super purityaluminium flashing tucked 30 mm minimum into the wall.CondensationCondensation is the major cause of failure leading to blisteringand decay. Moisture laden rooms below flat roofs should havegood ventilation, extra insulation and vapour control layerswhich can withstand accidental damage during construction.Avoid thermal bridges which can result in localized condensation.WindAll layers must be properly secured to substrate to resist winduplift.PenetrationKeeproof penetration to a minimum. Where available, useproprietary components such as flanged roof outlets andsleeves for cables.SunlightUltra-violet light will damage bituminous felts, asphalts andsome single ply materials. They should be protected with alayer of stone chippings bonded in hot bitumen or a cold bitu-men solution. Alternatively, mineral reinforced cement tiles orglass reinforced concrete tiles laid in a thick coating of hotbitumen will provide a good surface for pedestrian traffic.25 mm thick concrete pavings provide a more stable walkingsurface and should be bedded on proprietary plastic cornersupports which have the advantage of making up irregularitiesof level and the separation of the promenade surface from themembrane with rapid drainage of surface water.Light coloured top surfaces and reflective paints reflect thesun’s energy but provide only limited protection against dam-age from ultra-violet light.Materials 235Vapour control layerProprietary felts incorporating aluminium foil when laid fullysupported are the best type of vapour control layer. Theyare essential in cold and warm roofs but are not required ininverted warm roofs. Over profiled metal decking, two layers bonded together may be required because of lack ofcontinuous support.Mastic asphaltAsphalt is a blend of fine and coarse aggregates bondedwith bitumen. The ingredients are heated and blended inbatches and either delivered hot in bulk or cast into blocksfor re-heating on site.Roofing grade asphalts are described in BS 6925 : 1988 andBS 6577. For specification and application of asphalt roofingsee CP 144 : Part 4 : 1970.Recent developments include the addition of polymers whichclaim to make the material more flexible. These are not yetcovered by a British Standard.Asphalt is laid over a separating layer of inodorous black feltto BS 747 type 4A(i), and laid in two layers of a combinedthickness of 20 mm. Application in two layers allows the jointsto be staggered. The final surface is trowelled to produce abitumen rich layer which is then dressed with fine sand tomask surface crazing in cold weather. This should then be pro-tected with chippings or pavings. See Sunlight above.Bituminous feltFormerly roofing felts were made of rag, asbestos or glassfibre cores coated with bitumen. Over the last 15 years or so,most felts have been made with cores of polyester fleecewhich give increased stress resistance. BS 747 : 1977 (1986)has been amended to include this type. See CP 144 Part 3 forspecification and application.Newer felts are often made with polymer modified bitumenproducing greater flexibility and better performance.236 Architect’s Pocket BookRoofing felts are applied in two or more layers, bonded in hotbitumen, and bonded by gas torch or by means of a self-adhe-sive layer incorporated onto one side of the felt.First layer felts, often perforated, bind directly to the substrate.Intermediate felts are smooth faced for full bonding.Top layer felts may have the top surface prepared for site-applied protection such as chippings.Cap sheet felts, designed to be left exposed without furtherprotection, incorporate a surface coating of mineral chippingsor metal foil.Single ply membranesDeveloped in Europe and the USA, these are now increasinglyavailable in the UK (as yet not covered by a British Standard),and are made of plastics, synthetic rubber-based materials andsome modified bitumen materials.There are thermoset and thermoplastic type plastics:Thermoset includes all synthetic rubbers. These have fixedmolecular structures which cannot be reshaped by heat or sol-vents and are joined by adhesives.Thermoplastic materials are those whose molecular structure isnot permanently set and welds may be formed by heat or sol-vents. Welding is more satisfactory than glueing but requiresgreater skill.Sheets may be attached mechanically to the substrate withscrew fasteners and disc washers set in seams or by weldingmembrane to disc washers fixed to substrate. On invertedwarm roofs, the membrane is loose laid and ballasted.Some single ply materials may not be used in conjunction withexpanded polystyrene insulation.Sources: Flat Roofing – A Guide to Good PracticeMaterials 237GlassClear float glass A high quality annealed glass, transparentand free from distortion with a bright polished surface. Can becut to order, toughened, laminated, acid-etched, sand-blasted,bevelled, screen printed, decorated with lead and colouredfilm and silvered for mirrors.Thicknesses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and 25 mmStandard sizes From 920 � 2140 to 3210 � 6000 mmWeight 4 mm 10 kg/m2; 6 mm 15 kg/m2;8 mm 20 kg/m2; 10 mm 25 kg/m2Textured glass Rolled cast glass, one surface of which has aspecific surface treatment to form textures including roughcast, ribs, dots, linear patterns and floral decorations. Theyvary in obscuration which is rated from 1 (least) to 5 (most).Can be toughened or laminated.Thicknesses 4 mm and 6 mmMaximum size 1320 � 2140 mmScreen printed glass Ceramic ink designs printed onto floatglass which is subsequently heated to give a durable finish suit-able for internal and external use. White ink is most commonlyused – other colours to order, limited to one colour per sheet ofglass. Typical standard designs are small 2 and 3.5 mm Ø dotsand 10 mm stripes. Screen printing can provide aesthetic andtechnical control of heat and light transmission and privacy.Can be applied to glasses 6 to 12 mm thick.Maximum printed area 1800 � 3600 mmGlass for mirrors Specially selected clear or body tinted floatglass coated on the back with silver nitrate, copper and twocoats stove enamelled paint.Thicknesses 3, 4 and 6 mm Maximum size 3210 � 6000 mmSurveillance mirrors Clear float or laminated clear floatglass with silver reflecting coating providing undetected sur-veillance and high quality one-way vision to achieve completeprivacy. Coating must be fixed on the observer’s side. Suitablefor internal use.Thicknesses 6 mm clear float or 6.4 mm laminated clear floatMaximum size 2100 � 3210 mmFire resistant glassPilkingtons make four fire resisting glasses: two grades ofwired glass and two grades of laminated glass. The formerwere known as ‘Georgian’ wired glass. As a cost guide, theprice rises in the following order: Pyroshield, Pyroshield Safety,Pyrodur, Pyrostop.Pyroshield A glass with a 13 mm square steel mesh sand-wiched in its centre during manufacture. When exposed tofire, the glass fractures but is held in place by the wire mesh.Because of the mesh the glass is instantly recognizable as afire resistant glass. It is suitable for fire doors and windowsand for overhead or inclined glazing where the risk to peoplefrom falling broken glass needs to be avoided. It has 80 percent light transmittance and can be laminated to other glass.Available in clear and textured forms. Readily available andeasily cut. Fire ratings Designated Class Ext AA and classified asClass O for spread of flameIntegrity 30 minutes minimumPyroshield Clear 6 mm thick, 1980 � 3300 mm maximum sizePyroshield Texture 7 mm thick, 1980 � 3700 mm maximum sizeWeight 6 mm thick, 16.6 kg/m27 mm thick, 16.7 kg/m2238 Architect’s Pocket BookPyroshield Safety A fire and impact safety glass combininggood fire resistance with a consistent level of impact safety. Itis the only monolithic wired glass to meet the requirements ofPart N and Part B of the Building Regulations. Similar inappearance to the Pyroshield glasses except that the gauge ofthe wire in the mesh is thicker. It has 80 per cent light trans-mittance and is available in clear and textured forms.Fire ratings Designated Ext AA and classifiedClass O for surface spread of flameIntegrity 30 minutes minimum, high-er depending on glazing methodImpact Rating Class C to BS 6206 : 1981Pyroshield Safety Clear 6 mm thick, 1985 � 3300 mm maximumsizePyroshield Safety Texture 7 mm thick, 1985 � 3500 mm maximum sizeWeight 6 mm thick, 16.6 kg/m27 mm thick, 16.7 kg/m2Pyrodur A glass made up of three layers of float glass withone intumescent and one ultra-violet interlayer. It can be usedexternally and internally. Suitable for fire doors and screenswhere a non-insulating glass is acceptable. With its 87 percent light transmittance it provides totally clear and unob-structed vision. On exposure to fire the intumescent layer turnsopaque. Supplied cut to size.Fire ratings Integrity 30 minutes; insulation 16 minutesImpact Rating Class B to BS 6206 : 1981Size 10 mm thick, 1400 � 2000 mm maximum sizetestedWeight 25 kg/m2Materials 239240 Architect’s Pocket BookFire resistant glass – continuedPyrostop Float glass with intumescent layers as follows:15 mm – Four layers of glass with three intumescent layers21 mm – Five layers of glass with four intumescent layers44 mm – 15 mm and 21 mm Pyrostop sheets double glazedwith 8 mm space bar50 mm – Two 21 mm Pyrostop sheets double glazed with8 mm space barThese are suitable for internal use only. An external grade isavailable which consists of the above products with an addi-tional glass layer and UV filter interlayer laminated onto theoutside face of the glazing. Up to 88 per cent light transmit-tance. May be laminated to other glasses. Supplied cut to size.Fire ratings 15 mm = 60 minutes integrity; 30 minutesinsulation21 mm = 60 minutes integrity; 60 minutesinsulationImpact rating Class B to BS 6206 : 1981Sizes 15 mm,1600 � 2000 mm maximum size tested21 mm,1600 � 2200 mm maximum size testedWeight 15 mm = 36 kg/m221 mm = 48 kg/m2Source: Pilkington United Kingdom LtdSafety glassRequirement N1 of the Building Regulations concerns glazingin critical locations. In such places glass should either (1) breaksafely, (2) be robust, i.e. adequately thick, or (3) be perma-nently protected. See p. 190.Glass which is deemed to break safely must conform to BS 6206 : 1981.Materials 241Toughened and laminated glass can meet these requirements.Toughened glassToughened glass is normal annealed glass subjected to heat-ing and rapid cooling. This produces high compression in thesurface and compensating tension in the core. It is about 4–5times stronger than annealed glass and is highly resistant tothermal shock. When it breaks it shatters into relatively harm-less pieces. It cannot be cut, drilled or edgeworked aftertoughening. Any such work must be done prior to toughen-ing. The ‘strain’ pattern of toughening, i.e. horizontal bandsabout 275 mm apart, may be noticed in bright sunlight. Canbe made to incorporate designs for decoration or obscuration.Thicknesses 4 to 19 mmMaximum sizes 2550 � 1550 mm; 2720 � 1270 mmMinimum size 305 � 200 mmLaminated glassLaminated glass is made from two or more panes of variousglasses with interlayers of polyvinyl butyral bonded betweeneach pane. Normal thickness is 3 ply, i.e. two panes of glassand one interlayer. On impact the glass adheres to interlayers. Unlike toughened glass it can be cut, drilled and edgeworkedafter manufacture. Screen printed designs can be incorporatedduring manufacture.Anti-Bandit glasses have thicker interlayers and are designedto resist manual attack.Bullet Resistant glasses are made from thicknesses from 20 mmup. They are designed to meet specific bullets from 9 mmautomatics up to 5.56 mm military rifles. They can also provideprotection against bomb blast.Thicknesses From 4.4 mm to 45 mmMaximum size 3200 � 2000 mm depending on glass used242 Architect’s Pocket BookEnvironmental control glassesEnvironmental control glasses are divided into two types –Solar Control glasses and Low Emissivity (Low E) glasses.Solar Control glass is used primarily where the need to limitsolar heat gain is greatest as in warm climates, and Low Eglasses are more appropriate for cool climates where goodheat insulation is paramount.By choosing a combination of these glasses in double glazing,even greater environmental control can be achieved.As a guide to cost the price of these glasses rises in roughlythe following order: Antisun, Reflectafloat, Eclipse, SuncoolClassic & Low Reflection, Pilkington K, Kappafloat, SuncoolHigh Performance.All the glasses, with the exception of Kappafloat, can be sup-plied in toughened or laminated form. This should be specifiedwhere glass may be thermally at risk or where required by theBuilding Regulations for glazing in hazardous areas. See p. 190.Solar control glassAntisun float glasses are body tinted grey, bronze, blue orgreen throughout their thickness and offer low to mediumsolar control in a relatively economic way. They have very lowreflection and may be used for single and double glazing.Thicknesses Blue 6 mm; green 4,6 and 10 mm; bronzeand grey 4, 6, 10 and 12 mmMaximum sizes Blue 3300 � 2440 mm; green, bronze andgrey 3210 � 6000 mmMaterials 243Eclipse glasses are a range of reflective medium performancesolar control glasses available with blue/green, bronze, grey orsilver durable coatings. These coatings may be glazed to theexterior or interior of buildings providing different colourreflections. May be single or double glazed.Thickness 6 mmMaximum size 3300 � 5180 mmReflectafloat glass is a medium performance reflective solarcontrol glass with a bright silver appearance which can beused to achieve privacy. May be single or double glazed.Thickness 6 mmMaximum size 3000 � 5100 mmSuncool Classic A range of high performance reflectivesolar control float glasses with durable coatings applied to clearor tinted substrates. In reflection the colours are blue, silver,bronze, green or grey. They are excellent at reducing solarheat transmittance. May be single or double glazed.Thicknesses 6 mm as standard; 10 and 12 mm to specialorderMaximum size From 2000 � 3000 mm to 2500 � 3600 mmdepending on colour and typeSuncool Low Reflection Glasses with high solar controland very low external reflection which is useful where dazzlecould be a problem. Available in green, blue, bronze and grey.May be single or double glazed.Thickness 6 mmMaximum size Green, bronze and grey 3500 � 2000 mm;blue 3000 � 2000 mm244 Architect’s Pocket BookSuncool High Performance This range combines high lighttransmission and high solar control performance with thehighest level of thermal insulation. Only suitable for doubleglazing. The colours – silver, gold, green, blue, bronze, grey,neutral – vary in reflectivity.Thicknesses 6 mm as standard; 10 and 12 mm to specialorderMaximum unit size 2400 � 3600 mm approximatelyLow emissivity glass (Low E)Pilkington K A float glass with a transparent low emissivitycoating applied to one surface during manufacture. This coatingallows heat from the sun to enter the building but significantlyreduces heat loss from inside the building, thus providinggood thermal insulation and reducing condensation and colddown-draughts. It looks almost the same as clear float glassand has high light transmission. Normally used as an innerpane of double glazing with the coating facing into the cavity.It can also be used as single glazing in the inner sash of sec-ondary double glazing.Thicknesses 4 and 6 mmMaximum size 3210 � 6000 mmKappafloat was the predecessor of Pilkington K and hasmany of the properties described above with a slightly higherU-value. The coating is applied after the float glass is manufac-tured and therefore cannot be toughened or laminated.However, Kappafloat coatings may be applied to toughenedor laminated glass. Not suitable for single glazing.Thicknesses 6, 8 and 10 mmMaximum size 6 mm – 3600 � 2200 mm8 and 10 mm – 3210 � 2100 mmEnvironmental control glass propertiesExamples of double glazed units with a second pane of 6 mmfloat glass and 12 mm airgap compared with double glazedunits with two panes ofclear float glass.Materials 245Maximum* Light Light Solar Shading U-Valueunit sizes % % radiant co- W/m2Kannealed / trans- reflect- heat % efficienttoughened mittance tance trans-mm mittanceClear Float 2400 � 4000 76 14 72 0.82 2.86 mm 2000 � 4000Solar Antisun 2400 � 4000 44 7 49 0.57 2.8control 6 mm Bronze 2000 � 4000glassEclipse 2400 � 4000 39 42 49 0.56 2.86 mm clear 2000 � 4000Reflectafloat 2000 � 4000 30 44 44 0.50 2.86 mm 33/53 silver 2000 � 3300Suncool Classic 2400 � 3600 18 23 25 0.29 2.56 mm 20/34 2000 � 3500Suncool Low 2100 � 3210 19 5 29 0.34 2.6Reflection 6 mm 2000 � 350021/42 greySuncool High 2400 � 3600 52 9 44 0.50 1.7Performance 2000 � 35006 mm neutralLow E Pilkington K 2400 � 4000 73 16 69 0.79 1.9glass 6 mm 2000 � 4000Kappafloat 2200 � 3600 74 12 62 0.72 1.86 mm neutral 2000 � 3600* Maximum sizes are for guidance only and are not recommended glazing sizes.Upper figure is for annealed glass, lower figure for toughened glass.Screen glassesA range of laminated glasses designed to provide impact safetytogether with different environmental performance character-istics. Available in varying thicknesses and combinations ofannealed, toughened and heat strengthened glass which canbe single or double glazed.Audioscreen Designed for situations where noise levels needto be reduced. Annealed or toughened laminates with soundinsulation ratings from 37 to 45 db for internal or external use.Thicknesses 7, 9, 11 and 17 mmMaximum size 2100 � 3500 mmLightscreen A range of light diffusing translucent whitelaminates for internal and external use. Diffuses light moreevenly across insides of buildings. Reduces glare and can pro-vide privacy. Suitable for museums, art galleries and roof glazingwhere reduction of direct glare and sunlight may be beneficial.Two standard grades, TW70 and TW40 giving 70 per cent and40 per cent light transmission respectively.Thickness 8 mmMaximum size 2100 � 3500 mmUV screen will reduce or eliminate UV radiation whilst trans-mitting a good deal of light. Useful for situations where fabricsor works of art may be damaged by ultra-violet light. Threegrades available, UV0, UV3 and UV20.Thickness 8 mmMaximum size 2100 � 3500 mm246 Architect’s Pocket BookSafety screen Screens made up of non-coated glasses inannealed, toughened or heat strengthened form incorporatedinto 3 or 5 ply laminates with a total thickness not exceeding25 mm. All satisfy the requirements of BS 6208 : 1981 as asafety glass. Together with high impact resistance, they willwithstand high wind loads. Patterned and body tinted glassescan be used. Suitable for low level safety glazing, roof glazingand swimming pools. All manufactured to size.Thicknesses 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 17 mmMaximum size 2100 � 3500 mm float2140 � 1320 mm patternedSource: Pilkington United Kingdom LtdMaterials 247248 Architect’s Pocket BookGlass blocksGlass blocks are now no longer made in the UK but areimported from Germany and Italy. Metric and imperial sizesare made, imperial being used not only for new work but alsofor renovation and the US market.Metric sizes 115 � 115 � 80 mm; 190 � 190 � 80 and100 mm; 240 � 240 � 80 mm; 240 � 115 � 80 mm; 300 � 300 � 100 mm.Imperial sizes 6” � 6” � 31/8” and 4”; 8” � 8” � 31/8” and 4”;8” � 4” � 31/8” and 4”; 8” � 6” � 31/8”.Colours Clear as standard; bronze, blue, turquoise, pink,green, greyPatterns Waves, chequers, ribs, sand blasted, etc.Specials Fixed louvre ventilator (190 mm sq), corner blocks,bullet resistant, end blocks with one side mitredfor unframed edges to free standing panels.Radii Minimum internal radii for curved walls forblock widths as follows :115 mm = 650 mm; 6”(146 mm) = 1200 mm; 190 mm =1800 mm; 240 mm = 3700 mmWeight 80 mm thick = 100 kg/m2,100 mm thick = 125 kg/m2U-values 80 mm thick = 2.9 W/m2K;100 mm thick = 2.5 W/m2KLight Clear blocks = 80%; bronze = 60% approx.transmissionFire rating Class O – fixing systems for both half-hour andone-hour fire rating Sound 37–42 db over 100–3150 HzinsulationMaterials 249Structure Glass blocks are self-supporting but not loadbearing.Mortar jointed panels should not exceed 6 m (3 mfor fire resisting panels) in any direction, nor begreater than 18.5 m2.Fixing Glass blocks are generally fixed on site but canbe prefabricated in panels. The normal joint is10 mm but can be wider to suit dimensionalrequirements.Blocks are laid in wet mortar with 6 or 8 mm ØSS reinforcing bars fixed horizontally or vertical-ly, normally about every other block. Joints arethen pointed up.Silicone sealants are applied at perimeters. Intumescent mastics are applied to internal andexternal perimeter joints for fire resisting panels.Source: Luxcrete LtdTimberTimber sustainabilityThe world’s forests are under threat from illegal logging, clear-ance for agricultural expansion and poor management.However, timber can be a most energy efficient material. Atree grows to maturity in the space of one human lifetime,whereas stocks of oil, fossil fuels and minerals take millennia toproduce and are therefore not renewable resources. Thegrowth of trees fixes carbon and actually reduces the amountof CO2 in the atmosphere. This advantage is only realised inwell-managed forests where trees are replaced. Timber hasseven times less embodied energy (by weight) than that of steeland 29 times less than aluminium, as it needs no heat for man-ufacture and extraction is relatively cheap compared to mining.How do architects obtain information from suppliers as towhether timber comes from renewable resources?The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was found-ed in 1993 and is an international non-profitand non-governmental organization. It is anassociation of environmental and social groups,timber trade organizations and forestry profession-als from around the world. Its objectives are to provide inde-pendent certifiers of forest products and to provide consumerswith reliable information about these materials.It evaluates, accredits and monitors timber all round the world,whether it is tropical, temperate or boreal (northern).Certification is the process of inspecting forests to check theyare being managed according to an agreed set of principlesand criteria. These include recognition of indigenous people’srights, long-term economic viability, protection of biodiversity,conservation of ancient natural woodland, responsible man-agement and regular monitoring. Timber from FSC-endorsedforests will be covered by a ‘chain-of-custody-certificate’.Consult the FSC for their lists of suppliers and certified timberand wood products.Sources: Forest Stewardship Council, Friends of the EarthForests Forever, The Culture of Timber250 Architect’s Pocket BookTimber nomenclature‘Softwood’ and ‘Hardwood’ are botanical terms and do notnecessarily reflect the density of the species. Softwoods areconiferous (cone-bearing) trees of northern climates and are rela-tively soft with the exception of Pitch Pine and Yew (670 kg/m3).Hardwoods are deciduous trees and vary enormously in densityfrom Balsa (110 kg/m3) to Lignum Vitae (1250 kg/m3).MoistureMoisture content of newly-felled trees can be 60 per centand higher. Air drying will reduce the moisture content toapproximately 18 per cent. Further kiln drying can reduce themoisture content to six per cent.Recommended average moisture content for timbers from BS 1186 : Part 1External joinery 16°Internal joinery Buildings with intermittent heating 15°Buildings with continuous heating from 12–16°C 12°Buildings with continuous heating from 20–24°C 10°DurabilityThis relates to fungal decay. It is expressed in the five durabilityclasses described below and numbered in the tables onpp.254–5 and 256–8. Sapwood of all species is non-durableand should not be used in exposed situations without preserva-tive treatment.1 = very durable - more than 25 years2 = durable - 15–25 years3 = moderately durable - 10–15 years4 = non-durable - 5–10 years5 = perishable - less than 5 yearsMaterials 251252 Architect’s Pocket BookClasses of timber for joineryThese are effectively appearance classes and make no refer-ence to durability and workability, stability or surfaceabsorbency. The four classes characterize the quality of timberand moisture content after machining, at the time it is sup-plied to the first purchaser. They describe the presence (orabsence) of knots, splits, resin pockets, sapwood, wane,straightness of grain, exposed pith, rot, joints (in long timbers),plugs or filler (of knots).Class CSH Clear softwood and hardwood – i.e. free fromknots or other surface defects. Difficult to obtain insoftwoods with the possible exception of selectedDouglas fir, hemlock, parana pine and western redcedar.Class 1 This is suitable for both softwood and hardwoodcomponents, particularly small mouldings such asglazing bars and beads.Also for joinery which will receive a clear finish.Class 2 Suitable for general purpose softwood joinery andlaminated timber. Commonly used for windowcasements.Class 3 As class 2 but with greater latitude in knot size andspacing.Timber sizesSoftwoods and hardwoods are usually available in sizes asshown in the tables on p.253 and p.259.European softwoods are generally supplied in 1.8 m lengths inincrements of 300 mm up to about 5.7 m.North American softwoods are normally supplied in 1.8 mlengths up to 7.2 m in 600 mm increments. Other lengths tospecial order up to a maximum of 12.0 m.Hardwoods which are imported in log form may be cut tospecified sizes and are available in 19, 25, 32, 38, 50, 63 and75 mm thicknesses; widths from 150 mm up and lengths from1.8 m to typically 4.5 m and sometimes 6 m.Materials 253Softwood – standard sawn sizes (mm)Thickness 25 38 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 30012 • • • • • •16 • * * * *19 • • • * * * *22 * * * *25 • • • * * * * * * * * * These32 * * * * * * * * * sizes36 * * * * generally38 • • * * * * * * * from44 * * * * * * * * * Europe47 * * * * * * * * *50 • * * * * * * * * *63 * * * * * *75 • * * * * * * * *100 * * * * * These 150 * * * sizes200 * generally250 * from300 * N America• = sizes that may be available from stock or sawn from larger standard sizes* = sizes laid down in BS 4471 : 1996Reduction from sawn sizes by planingStructural timber 3 mm up to 100 mm 5 mm over 100 mmJoinery and cabinet work 7 mm up to 35 mm 9 mm over 35 mm11 mm up to 150 mm 13 mm over 150 mm.Softwoods254 Architect’s Pocket BookSpecies Place of Appearance Den- Dura- Ven- Usesorigin sity bility eer (remarks)kg/m3 classCedar of Lebanon* Europe light brown 580 2 ✓ garden furni-Cedrus Libani UK ture, drawer linings (aro-matic smell)Douglas Fir N America light, reddish 530 3 ✓ plywood,Pseudotsuga menziesii UK brown construction (long lengths), joinery, vatsHemlock, western N America pale brown 500 4 constructionTsuga heterophylla (large sizes), joinery (uni-form colour)Larch, European Europe pale, reddish 590 3 ✓ boat planking,Larix decidua pit props, trans-mission polesLarch, Japanese Europe reddish brown 560 3 stakes,Larix kaempferi constructionParana Pine S America golden brown 550 4 ✓ interior joinery,Araucaria angustifolia and red streaks plywood (may distort)Pine, Corsican Europe light 510 4 joinery,Pinus nigra maritima yellow-brown constructionPine, maritime Europe pale brown 510 3 pallets,Pinus pinaster to yellow packagingPine, pitch South USA yellow-brown 670 3 heavy construc-Pinus palustris to red-brown tion, joineryPine, radiata S Africa yellow to 480 4 packaging,Pinus radiata Australia pale brown furniturePine, scots UK pale 510 4 construction,Pinus sylvestris yellow-brown joineryto red-brownPine, yellow N America pale yellow to 420 4 pattern-making, Pinus strobus light brown doors, drawing boardsSpruce Canadian Canada white to 450 4 construction,Picea spp pale yellow joineryMaterials 255Species Place of Appearance Den- Dura- Ven- Usesorigin sity bility eer (remarks)kg/m3 classSpruce, sitka UK pinkish-brown 450 4 construction,Picea sitchensis pallets, packag-ingSpruce, western N America white to pale 450 4 constructionwhite yellow-brown (large sizes), Picea glauca joineryWestern Red Cedar N America reddish-brown 390 2 ✓ exteriorThuja plicata cladding,shingles,greenhouses,beehivesWhitewood, Europe white to pale 470 4 ✓ interior joinery, European Scandinavia yellow-brown construction, Picea abies and USSR flooringAbies albaYew Europe orange-brown 670 2 ✓ furniture,Taxus baccata to purple-brown cabinetry, turnery (good colour range)* = limited availabilitySource: Trada Technology LtdHardwoods256 Architect’s Pocket BookSpecies Place of Appearance Den- Dura- Ven- Usesorigin sity bility eer (remarks)kg/m3 classAfrormosia W Africa light brown, 710 1 ✓ joinery, furni-Pericopsis elata colour variable ture, claddingAgba W Africa yellow-brown 510 2 ✓ joinery, trim, Gossweilero cladding (maydendron balsamiferum exude gum)Ash, European UK pale white to 710 5 ✓ interior joineryFraximus exelsior Europe light brown (may be bent), sports goodsBalsa * S America pinky-white 160 5 insulation, Ochroma pyramidale buoyancy aids, architecturalmodelsBeech, European UK pale pinkish 720 5 ✓ furniture (bendsFagus sylvatica Europe brown well), flooring,plywoodBirch, European * Europe white to 670 5 ✓ plywood, furni-Betula pubescens Scandinavia light brown ture, turnery (bends well)Cherry, European * Europe pink-brown 630 3 ✓ cabinet makingPrunus avium (may warp), furnitureChestnut, sweet * Europe honey-brown 560 2 ✓ joinery, fencingCastanea sativa (straightgrained)Ebony * W Africa black with 1110 1 ✓ decorativeDiospyros spp India grey stripes work, inlaying, turnery (smallsizes only)Elm, European * Europe reddish-brown 560 4 ✓ furniture,Ulmus spp UK coffins, boats(resists splitting)Gaboon * W Africa pink-brown 430 4 ✓ plywood,Aucoumea klaineana blockboardGreenheart Guyana yellow-olive 1040 1 heavy marine Ocotea rodiaei green to construction, brown bridges etc.(very large sizes)Materials 257Species Place of Appearance Den- Dura- Ven- Usesorigin sity bility eer (remarks)kg/m3 classHickory * N America brown to 830 4 tool handles, Carya spp red-brown ladder rungs, sports goods (bends well)Iroko W Africa yellow-brown 660 1 ✓ joinery, work- Chlorophora excelsa tops, construc-tionKeruing SE Asia pink-brown to 740 3 heavy andDipterocarpus spp dark brown general construction,decking,vehicle flooringLignum Vitae * Central dark green- 1250 1 bushes,Guaicum spp America brown bearings, sportsgoods (smallsizes only)Lime, European * UK yellow-white 560 5 carving, Tilia spp Europe to pale brown turnery, bungs,clogs (fine texture)Mahogany, African W Africa reddish-brown 530 3 ✓ furniture,Khaya spp cabinetry, joineryMahogany, Brazil reddish-brown 560 2 ✓ furniture,American cabinetry,Swietenia macrophylla boats, joinery(stable,easily worked)Maple, rock N America creamy-white 740 4 ✓ flooring,Acer saccharum furniture,turnery(hardwearing)Meranti, dark red SE Asia medium to 710 3 ✓ joinery,Shorea spp dark plywoodred-brown (uniform grain)Oak, American red N America yellow-brown 790 4 ✓ furniture,Quercus spp with red tinge interior joinery(bends well)258 Architect’s Pocket BookSpecies Place of Appearance Den- Dura- Ven- Usesorigin sity bility eer (remarks)kg/m3 classOak, European UK yellow to 690 2 ✓ construction,Quercus robur Europe warm brown joinery, flooring,cooperage,fencing(bends well)Obeche W Africa white to 390 4 ✓ interior joinery,Triplochiton scleroxylon pale yellowfurniture, plywood(very stable)Plane, European * Europe mottled 640 5 ✓ decorative work,Platanus hybrida red-brown turnery, inlaysRamin SE Asia white to 670 4 ✓ mouldings,Gonystylus spp pale yellow furniture, louvredoors (easilymachined)Rosewood * S America purplish-brown 870 1 ✓ interior joinery,Dalbergia spp India with black cabinetry, streaks turnery, veneersSapele W Africa red-brown with 640 3 ✓ interior joinery, Entandophragma stripe figure door veneers,cylindricum flooringSycamore * Europe white to 630 5 ✓ furniture,Acer pseudoplatanus UK creamy yellow panelling,kitchen ware(does not taintor stain)Teak Burma golden brown 660 1 ✓ furniture,Tectona grandis Thailand joinery, boats(chemical andtermiteresistant)Utile W Africa reddish- 660 2 ✓ joinery,Entandophragma utile brown furniture, cabinetryWalnut, European * Europe grey-brown 670 3 ✓ furniture,Juglans regia UK with turnery, dark streaks gun stocks (decorative)* = limited availabilityHardwoods – continuedHardwood – standard sawn sizes (mm)Thickness 50 63 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 30019 * * * * *25 * * * * * * * * * * *32 * * * * * * * * *38 * * * * * * * * *50 * * * * * * * *63 * * * * * *75 * * * * * *100 * * * * * ** = sizes laid down in BS 5450 : 1977.Reduction from sawn sizes by planingStructural timber 3 mm up to 100 mm5 mm for 101–150 mm6 mm for 151–300 mmFlooring, matchings 5 mm up to 25 mm6 mm for 26–50 mm7 mm for 51–300 mmWood trim 6 mm up to 25 mm7 mm for 26–50 mm8 mm for 51–100 mm9 mm for 101–105 mm10 mm for 151–300 mmJoinery and cabinet work 7 mm up to 25 mm9 mm for 26–50 mm10 mm for 51–100 mm12 mm for 101–150 mm14 mm for 151–300 mmMaterials 259Softwood mouldings260 Architect’s Pocket Bookhalf round 21 � 8quadrant 9 � 9, 21 � 21scotia 15 � 15, 21 � 21parting bead 21 � 8staff bead 21 � 15glazing bead 15 � 9wedge 9 � 9, 21 � 9door stop 34 � 12, 46 � 12scotia coving 45 � 15panel mould 28 � 9, 41 � 15picture rail 41 � 15, 55 � 18Some sections are available in a range of sizes.The dimensions given are those most often available.stile 43 � 21rail 71 � 8weather bar 55 � 45, 70 � 45angle 21, 30, 40mopstick handrail 45 � 45lath 25 � 5feather edge 100 � 15dado rail 45 � 20, 70 � 20twice round 34 � 9single round 34 � 9, 46 � 15,71 � 15chamfered architrave 58 � 15,71 � 15broken ogee 15 � 8, 21 � 8base 21 � 8double astragal 21 � 8ogee architrave 46, 58, 71 � 18louvre 92 � 8bull nosed skirting 150 � 19pencil round skirting 150 � 19chamfered skirting 150 � 19torus skirting 175 � 25ogee skirting 165 � 25ovolo skirting 165 � 25Hardwood mouldingsMaterials 261birdsmouth 12, 15, 18, 21 broken ogee 15 � 8, 21 � 8 reeded 21 � 6, 34 � 6triangle 9 � 9 to 21 � 21hockey stick 15 � 6 to 34 � 12glazing bead 9 � 9, 12 � 9, 15 � 9dowel 4 to 38 Øangle 21, 30, 40base 21 � 8barrel 34 � 12parting bead 21 � 8staff bead 21 � 15clothes dryer rail 28 � 12rebated half round 13 � 6, 21 � 8crown 38 � 12scotia 6 � 3 to 25 � 6panel mould 28 � 9angle 12, 15, 18, 21splayed picture frame 21 � 9, 28 � 18spoon picture frame 34 � 21, 46 � 21cushion picture frame 12 � 9, 18 � 12wedge 18 � 9, 23 � 9single edge cover 34 � 8, 46 � 8astragal 12 � 6double astragal 21 � 8262 Architect’s Pocket BookQUARTER CUT veneers are cut at rightangles to the growth rings in the logs.The variations in colour brought about bysummer/winter growth produce a straightgrain effect. This is thought to be anadvantage in veneers such as sapele.CROWN CUT/FLAT CUT veneers are produced by slicing through logs, giving aless straight grained veneer with more figureand in general a more decorative finish.ROTARY CUT is made by mounting a log ona lathe and rotating it against a sharp fixedknife. The cut follows the annular growthrings producing a bold variegated grain.Rotary cut veneer is exceptionally wide.BURR/BURL VENEERS are made from the enlargedtrunk of certain trees, particularly walnut. The grainis very irregular with the appearance of small knotsgrouped closely together. Small sections of thisveneer are normally joined together to form a larger sheet.Source: James Latham plcWood veneersMaterials 263Wood rotting fungiDry rot Serpula lacrimansThis is the most damaging of fungi. Mainly attacks softwoodsand typically occurs in wood embedded in damp masonry. Itneeds wood with only 20% moisture content and thrives indark, humid conditions and so is seldom seen externally. It isable to penetrate bricks and mortar and thus can transportmoisture from a damp source to new woodwork.Fruit body Tough, fleshy pancake or bracket. Yellow ochreturning to rusty-red with white or grey margins.Mycelium Silky white sheets, cotton wool-like cushions or(fungal roots) felted grey skin showing tinges of yellow andlilac. Strands sometimes 6 mm thick, becomingbrittle when dry.Damage Darkens wood with large cuboidal cracking anddeep fissures.Wood lightweight and crumbly. No skin ofsound wood.Wood may be warped and give off distinctivemusty mushroomy smell.Wet rotsThese can only grow on timber with a 40–50 per cent mois-ture content and tend not to spread much beyond the sourceof dampness.Coniophora puteana (cellar fungus)A brown rot occurring in softwoods and hardwoods. Mostcommon cause of decay in woodwork soaked by leakingwater.Fruit body Rare in buildings. Thin greenish olive-brownplate. Spores on minute pimples.Mycelium Only present in conditions of high humidity.Slender thread-like yellowish becoming deepbrown or black.Damage Darkens wood, small cuboidal cracks, oftenbelow sound veneer.Wood rotting fungi – continuedFibroporia vaillantii (mine fungus)A brown rot which attacks softwood, particularly in high tem-perature areas.Fruit body Irregular, white, cream to yellow lumpy sheetsor plates with numerous minute pores.Mycelium White or cream sheets of fern-like growths.Damage Resembles dry rot in cuboidal pieces but woodlighter in colour and cracks less deep.Phellinus contiguusA white rot which attacks softwoods and hardwoods and isfrequently found on external joinery. Fruit body Only found occasionally. Tough, elongated,ochre to dark brown, covered in minute pores.Mycelium Tawny brown tufts may be found in crevices.Damage Wood bleaches and develops stringy fibrousappearance.Does not crumble.Donkioporia expansaA white rot which attacks hardwood, particularly oak, and mayspread to adjacent softwoods. Often found at beam ends bed-ded in damp walls and associated with death watch beetle.Fruit body Thick, hard, dull fawn or biscuit coloured plateor bracket. Long pores, often in several layers.Mycelium White to biscuit felted growth, often shaped tocontours in wood. Can exude yellow-brown liquid.Damage Wood becomes bleached and is reduced toconsistency of whitish lint which will crush butdoes not crumble.264 Architect’s Pocket BookAsterostromaA white rot usually found in softwood joinery such as skirtingboards.Fruit body Thin, sheet-like, without pores rather like mycelium.Mycelium White, cream or buff sheets with strands whichcan cross long distances over masonry.Damage Wood is bleached and becomes stringy andfibrous.No cuboidal cracking and does not crumble.TreatmentTimber suffering from fungal or woodworm damage shouldonly be treated105 27/8 � 41/8 B7 88 � 125 31/2 � 415/16A8 52 � 74 21/16 � 27/8 B8 62 � 88 27/16 � 31/2A9 37 � 52 17/16 � 21/16 B9 44 � 62 13/4 � 27/16A10 26 � 37 11/16 � 17/16 B10 31 � 44 11/4 � 13/424 Architect’s Pocket BookGeneral Information 25mm inchesC0 917 � 1297 361/8 � 503/8C1 648 � 917 251/2 � 361/8C2 458 � 648 18 � 251/2C3 324 � 458 123/4 � 18C4 229 � 324 9 � 123/4C5 162 � 229 63/8 � 9C6 114 � 162 41/2 � 63/8C7 81 � 114 33/16� 41/2DL 110 � 220 43/8 � 85/8Source: Whitaker’s AlmanackPaper sizes – A seriesThe ratio of the sides= 1 : 1.414252A8A7A4A6A5A3 A2A110521042084111895942971487426 Architect’s Pocket BookInternational A series paper and envelopesSizes most commonly used for correspondenceA4 A4 A4 A4297� 210 mmC6114� 162 mmDL110� 220 mmC5229� 162 mmA5210� 148 mmC4324� 229 mmA5The second dimension of an envelope denotes the position ofthe opening flap.General Information 27Imperial paper sizesImperial sizes are still used for some printing and drawingpapers, the most common of which are listed below:inches mmQuad Double Crown 60 � 40 1524 � 1016Antiquarian 53 � 31 1346 � 787Quad Crown 40 � 30 1016 � 762Double Elephant 40 � 27 1016 � 686Imperial 30 � 22 762 � 559Double Crown 30 � 20 762 � 508Double Foolscap 27 � 17 686 � 432Cartridge 26 � 12 660 � 305Royal 20 � 25 508 � 635Crown 20 � 15 508 � 381Post 19 � 151/4 483 � 387Foolscap 17 � 131/2 432 � 34328 Architect’s Pocket BookDrawing conventionsDemolitionSteps, ramps, slopesremoval of part infilling openingremoval of area making good after forming openingdogleg staircaserampdirection of FALL, slope FLOW direction of watercoursedirection of FALL, natural drainagedirection of RISE ramp, stair or steps101112131617189876543212.1502.350General Information 29Landscapecontour grassexisting contour planting bedline ofno cut /no fillexisting treeexisting tree to be removedcut volume in sectionnew treefall of ground(arrow points down)protection ofexisting treebanknew hedgeexisting hedge30 Architect’s Pocket BookDrawing conventions – continuedMasonrybrickwork blockwork stoneworkTimberany type sawn softwood machined all round hardwood machined all roundSite-formed materialsmulch concrete asphalt macadamtopsoil granular fill plaster render screedsubsoil hard fillManufactured materialsglass sheet quilt – large scalesheet etc – large scale blockboard insulation boardplywood veneered blockboard insulation quiltboard, layer, membrane, sheet – small scaleGeneral Information 31Doors Windowshinged leaf fixed lighthinged leaf(alternative)side hung (arrow points to hinge)hinged leaf normally closedtop hunghinged leaf normally openbottom hunghinged leaf opening 180°horizontal pivothinged leaf opening both waysvertical pivotpair ofhinged leavesvertical pivotreversiblesliding leafhorizontal hingeprojecting out (H window)revolving leaveshorizontal slidingsliding/folding leavesend hungvertical slidingsliding/folding leavescentre hungslide and tilttilt and turnSource: BS 1192 : Part 3 : 1987 Recommendations for symbols and other graphic conventionsPerspective drawing – method of setting up1 Draw the plan to a scale and set it at the angle at which itis to be viewed.2 Establish the position of the Observer on plan, preferablyso that the building falls within a 30° cone. Any widerangled cone will produce a distorted perspective. The centreline of this cone is the line of sight.3 Draw a horizontal line through the plan. This is called thepicture plane, which is set at 90° to the line of sight. Thefurther the picture plane is from the Observer, the largerthe drawing will be.4 Draw two lines parallel to the visible sides of the building –from the Observer to the picture plane – to determine thevanishing points (VP). As this building is orthogonal, theselines are at right angles to one another.5 Draw the horizon where the perspective drawing will be.Draw vertical lines from the picture plane VPs to establishthe VPs on the horizon.6 Draw lines from the Observer to the three lower corners ofthe plan, cutting the picture plane.7 Where these lines cut the picture plane at A, B and C,draw vertical lines up to find the three visible corners of thebuilding.8 Draw a vertical line from one of the two points where thepicture plane cuts the plan to establish a vertical scale line.Mark this line to the same scale as the plan to determinethe bottom and top edges of the building relative to thehorizon. The horizon should be at about 1.6 m for normaleye level.9 Connect these marks to the appropriate vanishing pointsto complete the outline of the building.32 Architect’s Pocket BookGeneral Information 33ObserverPerspective drawing – method of setting upVPhorizon (eye level)picture planeVPVPVPvertical scale lineline of sightA B CV P30°CI/SfB Construction indexCI/SfB is a library system used by the building industry and issuitable for the smallest or largest office.CI = Construction IndexSfB = Samarbetskommitten för Byggnadsfrägor – aSwedish system of the late 1940s.CI/SfB notation has four divisions: 0 1 2 & 3 4Table 0 = Physical environmentTable 1 = ElementsTables 2 and 3 = Constructions and MaterialsTable 4 = Activities and RequirementsThe current CI/SfB edition was issued in 1976 and, accordingto RIBA Information Services, is still widely used although thescheme is long overdue for revision.34 Architect’s Pocket BookCI/SfB TablesTable 0 Physical environmentGeneral Information 350 Planning areas01 Extra terrestrial areas02 International, national scaleplanning areas03 Regional, sub-regional scaleplanning areas0405 Rural, urban planning areas06 Land use planning areas0708 Other planning areas09 Common areas relevant toplanning1 Utilities, civil engineeringfacilities11 Rail transport12 Road transport13 Water transport14 Air transport, other transport15 Communications16 Power supply, mineral supply17 Water supply, waste disposal18 Other2 Industrial facilities21–2526 Agricultural27 Manufacturing28 Other3 Administrative, commercial,proactive service facilities31 Official administration, lawcourts32 Offices33 Commercial34 Trading, shops35–3637 Protective services38 Other4 Health, welfare facilities41 Hospitals42 Other medical4344 Welfare, homes46 Animal welfare4748 Other5 Recreational facilities51 Refreshment52 Entertainment53 Social recreation, clubs54 Aquatic sports5556 Sports5758 Other6 Religious facilities61 Religious centres62 Cathedrals63 Churches, chapels64 Mission halls, meeting houses65 Temples, mosques, synagogues66 Convents67 Funerary, shrines68 Other7 Educational, scientific, information facilities71 Schools72 Universities, colleges73 Scientific7475 Exhibition, display76 Information, libraries7778 OtherTable 1 Elements(--) Sites, projects, building systems36 Architect’s Pocket Book8 Residential facilities81 Housing82 One-off housing units, houses8384 Special housing85 Communal residential86 Historical residential87 Temporary, mobile residential88 Other9 Common facilities, other facilities91 Circulation92 Rest, work93 Culinary94 Sanitary, hygiene95 Cleaning, maintenance96 Storage97 Processing, plant, control98 Other, buildings other than byfunction99 Parts of facilities, other aspectsof the physical environment,architecture, landscape(1–) Ground, sub-structure(10)(11) Ground(12)(13) Floor beds(14)–(15)(16) Retaining walls, foundations(17) Pile foundations(18) Other substructure elements(19) Parts of elements (11) to (18),cost summary(2–) Primaryif really necessary. Very often the damage isold, as when the sapwood has been destroyed but theremaining heartwood is sufficient for structural stability.Many defects can be cured by eliminating the source of thedamp and improving ventilation. The use of unjustified treat-ment is contrary to the Control of Substances Hazardous toHealth (COSHH) Regulations and is not acceptable.The person or company applying the treatment could be liableto prosecution.However, when there is no alternative to chemical treatment,the following action should be undertaken:Identify fungus. Rapidly dry out any moisture sources andimprove ventilation.Remove all affected timber (about 400 mm from visible signsfor dry rot) and ideally burn on site. Avoid distributing spores when handling.Treat all remaining timbers with approved fungicide. Replacewith pre-treated timber.Materials 265266 Architect’s Pocket BookWoodwormWood boring insects do not depend on damp and humid con-ditions, although certain species prefer timber which has beendecayed by fungi.The life cycle of a woodworm is egg, larva, pupa and adult.First signs of attack are the exit holes made by the adults whoemerge to mate and usually die after reproduction. The following insects can all cause serious damage and thedeath watch and longhorn beetle can cause structural dam-age. Other beetles only feed on damp wood rotted by fungiand, since they cannot attack sound dry wood, remedialaction to control wood rot will limit further infestation.Common furniture beetle (Anobium punctatum)Attacks both softwoods and European hardwoods and alsoplywood made with natural glues. It is the most widespreadbeetle and only affects sapwood if wood rot is present.Commonly found in older furniture, structural timbers, understairs, cupboards and areas affected by damp. Beetle 2–6 mm long, exit hole 1–2 mm, adults emergeMay–September.Wood boring weevils(Pentarthrum huttonii and Euophryum confine)Attacks decayed hard and softwoods in damp situations, typi-cally poorly ventilated cellars and wood in contact with wetfloors and walls.Beetle 3–5 mm long, exit hole 1.0 mm with surface channels,adults emerge at any time.Powder post beetle (Lyctus brunneus)Attacks tropical and European hardwoods, not found in soft-woods. Veneers, plywood and blockboard are all susceptible.Beetle 4–7 mm long, exit hole 1–2 mm.Materials 267Death watch beetle (Xestobium rufovillosum)Attacks sapwood and heartwood of partially decayed hard-woods and occasionally adjacent softwoods. Often found inold churches with oak and elm structures. Typically found inareas prone to dampness such as wall plates, ends of joists,lintels and timbers built into masonry.Beetle 6–8 mm long, exit hole 3 mm, adults emerge March–June.Longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes bajulus)Attacks softwood, particularly in roof timbers. May be over-looked in early stages as there are few exit holes. Scrapingnoises audible on hot days with large infestations. Prevalentonly in Surrey and SW London. Outbreaks should be reportedto BRE Timber & Protection Division.Beetle 10–20 mm long, exit hole 6–10 mm oval, adults emergeJuly–September.TreatmentFresh exit holes and bore dust on or below timbers are signsof active infestation, although vibrations may dislodge oldbore dust. Chemical treatment however may not be neces-sary. See paragraph on Treatment on p. 265.Identify beetle and treat timbers with appropriate insecticidalspray, emulsion or paste to destroy adults and unhatched eggson the surface of the wood and larvae before they developinto pupae. Solvent-based products penetrate timber veryeffectively but have health and safety problems associatedwith them. Some water-based products claim to be as effec-tive but more environmentally friendly.If associated with fungal decay, treat as for wood rot and usea dual-purpose remedy (i.e. anti rot and beetle). Do not usedual purpose products where woodworm is present in timberswhich are dry and expected to remain so.Source: Recognising Wood Rot and Insect Damage in Buildings268 Architect’s Pocket Booklonghorn beetleadult size mm exit hole mmdeath watch beetlepowder post beetlefurniture beetlewood boring weevilWood boring beetles6-9 2-34-7 1-23-5 1-23-5 1-010-20 6-10Materials 269Building boardsChipboardParticle board with a variety of woodchips bonded with resinadhesives.No chipboard is completely moisture resistant and should notbe used externally.Six classes identified in BS 5669 Part 2 : 1989C1 = general purpose use C3 = moisture resistantC1A = slightly better quality C4 = moisture resistant for furniture flooring qualityC2 = flooring quality C5 = moisture resistant structural qualitySheets can be supplied wood veneer and melamine faced;with low formaldehyde rating, or bonded to polystyrene forinsulated flooring.Thicknesses 12, 15, 18, 22, 25, 28, 30 and 38 mm.Sheet sizes 1220 � 2440 mm, 1830 � 2440 mm,1220 � 2745 mm, 1830 � 3050 mm,1220 � 3050 mm, 1830 � 3660 mmalso600 � 2440 mm for 18 and 22 mm flooringWood veneer and melamine faced shelvesThickness 15mmWidths 152 (6”), 229 (9”), 305 (12”), 381 (15”), 457 (18”), 533 (21”), 610 (24”), 686 (27”),762 (30”); 914 mm (36”)Lengths 1830 (6’) and 2440 mm (8’)Source: CSC Forest Products LtdBlockboardComposite board with one or two veneers applied to solidcore of timber blocks 7 mm–30 mm wide, also available withdecorative wood or laminate veneers, commonly 18 mm thick.Thicknesses 13, 16, 18, 22, 25, 32, 38 and 45 mmSheet sizes 1220� 2440 mm; 1525 � 3050 and 3660 mm; 1830� 5200 mmSource: James Latham plcHardboardThin, dense boards with one very smooth face and mesh tex-tured reverse. Grainless, knotless, and will not easily split orsplinter. It can be bent, is easy to machine, has high internalbond strength for glueing and good dimensional stability.Twotypes available:Standard hardboard = general internal linings and doorfacingsOil tempered hardboard = structural purposes (higherstrength and moisture resistance),flooring overlaysThicknesses 3.2, 4.8 and 6.0 mmSheet sizes 1220 � 2440 and 3050 mmAlso available:Perforated hardboard with 4.8 mm Ø holes @ 19 mm centres � 3.2 mm thick and7.0 mm Ø holes @ 25 mm centres � 6.0 mm thickHardboard with painted finishes.Source: Masonite CP Ltd270 Architect’s Pocket BookMaterials 271LaminboardA composite board with veneers applied to a core of narrowtimber strips (as opposed to wider blocks in blockboard). It isheavier, flatter and more expensive than blockboard but is lesslikely to warp.Thicknesses 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 32, 38 and 44 mmSheet sizes 1220� 2440 mm, 1525 � 3050 and 3660 mm.MDF (Medium Density Fibreboard)Homogenous board of softwood fibres bonded with syntheticresins producing a very dense, fine textured uniform materialwhich can be machined to great accuracy. Normal grades arenot moisture resistant but moisture resistant grades are available.Low and zero formaldehyde, flame retardant and integrallycoloured boards are also available.Thicknesses 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 22, 25 and 30 mm (smaller andlarger thicknesses also made by a few manufacturers).Sheet sizes 1220�2440 mm 1525 �2440 mm 1830 �2440 mm1220�2745 mm 1525 �2745 mm 1830 �3660 mm1220�3050 mm 1525 �3050 mmMedium hardboardA board with a density between that of wood fibre insulationboard and standard hardboard. It has good thermal and insu-lation properties with a fine finish. Can be cold and steambent. Moisture resistant and flame retardant grades available.Used for notice boards, ceilings, wall linings, shop fittings, dis-play work and pin boards.Thicknesses 6.4, 9.5 and 12.7 mmSheet size 1220 � 2440 mmSource: Williamette Europe LtdOSB (Oriented Strand Board)Made from softwood strands, approximately 75 mm long,placed in layers in different directions, bonded and com-pressed togetherwith exterior grade water resistant resins. A‘green’ product made from thinnings from managed planta-tions. Process utilises 95 per cent of the wood, discarded barkbeing used for fuel or horticulture. Cheaper than plywood,strong in both directions, with a uniform and decorativeappearance.Two grades available, one suitable for formwork, site hoard-ings and crating, the other for sheathing, flooring and decora-tive panels.Thicknesses 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 22 and 25 mmSheet sizes 1200 � 2400 mm; 1220 � 2440 mm; 590 � 2400 mm and 2440 mm for9 mm thick t & g flooringSource: CSC Forest Products LtdMatchboardingTimber boards, tongued and grooved on opposite sides. Jointscan be plain butt joints as for floorboards or moulded with ‘V’or quirk (rounded) shoulders for wall cladding.Typical sizes of matchboardsNominal size mm Laid width mm Finished thickness mm12.5 × 100 80 1019 × 75 55 1519 × 100 80 1519 × 150 130 1525 × 75 55 2025 × 100 80 2025 × 150 130 20272 Architect’s Pocket BookPlywoodMade from softwood and hardwood veneers placed at rightangles, or sometimes 45°, to one another. The veneers arestrong in the direction of the grain, weak in the other. Thusstructural plywoods have odd numbers of layers so that thegrain to the outside faces lies in the same direction. Adhesivesused are described as WBP (weather and boil proof) for exter-nal or arduous conditions. BR (boil resistant), MR (moistureresistant) and INT (interior) are progressively less resistant.Plywoods are graded according to species and country of ori-gin and are effectively as follows:Veneer with minimal imperfections as peeled.Veneer with imperfections plugged or filled.Veneer with imperfections which have not been repaired.Thicknesses 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 mm (aircraft specification); 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6.5, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24 and27 mmSheet sizes 1220 � 1220 mm 1525 � 610 mm (t & g) 1220 � 2440 mm 1525 � 1525 mm1220 � 3050 mm 1525 � 2440 mm1220 � 3660 mm 1525 � 3050 mm1270 � 1270 mm 1525 � 3660 mmSource: James Latham plcMaterials 273PlasterboardBoards with a core of aerated gypsum plaster bonded betweentwo sheets of strong paper which should comply with BS 1230Part 1 : 1985. There are different grades for dry lining and wet plaster. Drylining boards have tapered edges to allow for jointing tapes.Boards are available backed with foil, polystyrene, polyurethanefoam and woodwool. Others have more moisture resistantand fire resistant cores.Thicknesses 9.5, 12.5, 15 and 19 mm (25–50 mm for boardsbacked with insulation)Sheet sizes 400 � 1200 mm 600 � 1800 mm600 � 2400 mm900 � 1200 mm 1200 � 2400 mm900 � 1800 mm 1200 � 2700 mm900 � 2400 mm 1200 � 3000 mmSource: British Gypsum274 Architect’s Pocket BookCalcium silicate boardAsbestos-free board mainly used for structural fire protection.Cellulose fibres dispersed in water are mixed with lime, cement,silica and fire protective fillers to form a slurry. Water is thenremoved from the slurry under vacuum to form boards which aretransferred to high pressure steam autoclaves for curing. Denserboards are hydraulically compressed before curing. Boards canbe easily cut to size and drilled for screw fixing. 9 mm and 12 mmthick boards are available with rebated edges for seamless flushjointing. Boards may be decorated or left untreated.Thicknesses 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 22, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50,55 and 60 mmSheet sizes 1220, 1830, 2440, 3050 mm long �610 and 1220 mm wideFire Classification Class 0 for surface spread of flameFire Protection From 60 to 240 minutes depending onproductSource: Cape CasilMaterials 275276 Architect’s Pocket BookPlasticsPlastics – commonly used in buildingPlastics are organic substances mainly derived from by-productsof coal-gas manufacture and refining of mineral oil. These aremanipulated to form long-chain molecules on which the plas-ticity and rigidity of the material of the products made fromthem depend. They are made up of three main groups:• thermoplastics, such as polythene, vinyls and nylon,where the structure is not permanently set and which cantherefore be joined by heat or solvents.• thermosetting plastics, such as phenol formaldehyde,melamine and fibreglass, which have fixed molecularstructures that cannot be re-shaped by heat or solventsand are joined by adhesives.• elastomers, such as natural rubber, neoprene and butylrubber, which have polymers in which the helical molecu-lar chains are free to straighten when the material isstretched and recover when the load is released.Plastics – industrial techniquesglass reinforced plastic (GRP) Synthetic resin reinforcedwith glass fibre, used for rooflights, wall panels, etc.injection moulding Similar to die casting for moulding ther-moplastics. Plastic is melted and then forced under pressureinto a cooled moulding chamber.plastic laminate Decorative laminate made up of paper orfabric impregnated with melamine or phenolic resins andbonded together under pressure to form a hard-wearing,scratch-resistant finish used primarily for work surfaces.solvent welding A permanent joint made between thermo-plastics by smearing both sides with an appropriate solventbefore joining together.vacuum forming Making components by evacuating thespace between the sheet material and the die so that formingis effected by atmospheric pressure.Plastics – abbreviations in general useMaterials 277Abbreviation Plastic UsesABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene cold water pipesCPE Chlorinated polyethylene water tanksCPVC Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride hot water and waste pipesEPDM Ethylene propylene di-monomer gaskets, single ply roofingEPS Expanded polystyrene plastic foam for insulationETFE Ethyl tetra fluoro ethylene film for foil roof cushionsEVA Ethylene vinyl acetate weather protective filmsGRP Glass-reinforced polyester cladding, panels, mouldings(fibreglass)HDPE High density polyethylene flooring, pipingHIPS High impact polystyrene ceilings, mirrorsLDPE Low density polyethylene bins, pipes, fittingsMF Melamine-formaldehyde laminated plastics, adhesivesPA Polyamide (nylon) electrical fittings, washers, ropesPB Polybutylene pipe fittingsPC Polycarbonate anti-vandal glazingPE Polyethylene electrical insulation, flooring, pipingPF Phenol-formaldehyde electrical fittings, door (Bakelite) furniturePMMA Polymethyl methacrylate sanitary ware, (Perspex) transparent sheetPP Polypropylene electrical insulation, pipingPS Polystyrene insulation, suspended ceilingsPTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene pipe jointing, sealing tapePU Polyurethane insulation, paints, coatingsPVA Polyvinyl acetate emulsion paint, bonding(latex emulsion) agentsPVC Polyvinyl chloride floor and wall coveringsPVB Polyvinyl butyral laminated glassPVF Polyvinyl fluoride protective filmsUF Urea-formaldehyde glues, insulationUP Unsaturated polyester paint, powder coatings, bituminous feltUPVC Unplasticised polyvinyl rainwater, soil and waste chloride pipes, roof sheeting278 Architect’s Pocket BookNailsWood screws Machine screws and boltsSource: Handbook of Fixings and Fasteningsround wire nailpurlin naillost head nailcut floorboard bradcut clasp nail forheavy carpentrydouble head shutter nail for temporary fixingmasonry nailhelical threaded nail for corrugated sheetannular nail forboats and external joineryconvex head nail forcorrugated sheetchisel point nail for fixing pipes to masonrycountersunkraised countersunkroundbinder panpancheesefillistermushroomNails and screwspanel pinhardboad panel pinlath nailplasterboard nailgimp pin forupholsterycut lath nailescutcheon pinclout nail for roof-ing, felt and fencinglarge clout nail forroofing feltclout head peg forroof tilingcountersunkraised countersunkdome headcoach screwcross headraised headcedar shake nailcarpet tacksprig for fixingglass to timberframesStandard wire gauge (SWG)in millimetres and inchesMaterials 279SWG mm inches SWG mm inches1 7.62 0.300 16 1.63 0.0642 7.00 0.276 17 1.42 0.0563 6.40 0.252 18 1.22 0.0484 5.89 0.232 19 1.02 0.0405 5.38 0.212 20 0.914 0.0366 4.88 0.192 21 0.813 0.0327 4.47 0.176 22 0.711 0.0288 4.06 0.160 23 0.610 0.0249 3.66 0.144 24 0.559 0.02210 3.25 0.128 25 0.508 0.02011 2.95 0.116 26 0.457 0.01812 2.64 0.104 27 0.417 0.01613 2.34 0.092 28 0.376 0.01514 2.03 0.080 29 0.345 0.01415 1.83 0.072 30 0.315 0.012280 Architect’s Pocket BookPaintsColourThe colour spectrum is made up of colour refracted from abeam of light, as through a glass prism or as seen in a rain-bow. The bands of colour are arranged according to theirdecreasing wavelength (6.5 × 10–7 for red to 4.2 × 10–7 forviolet), and are traditionally divided into seven main colours:red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Whenarranged as segments of a circle, this is known as the colourcircle. The primary colours are red, yellow and blue, as thesecannot be mixed from other colours. The secondary coloursare orange, green and purple, and the tertiary colours areproduced by adding a primary colour to a secondary colour.Complementary colours are pairs of colours on opposite sidesof the circle, which when mixed together make browns andgreys. The term hue indicates a specific colour, defined interms of, say, redness or blueness, but not lightness or dark-ness. Tone is the lightness or darkness of a colour. Addingblack, white or grey to a hue reduces its intensity.Colour systemsBritish Standards Colour System BS: 4800 1989. Coloursare defined by a three-part code consisting of hue, greynessand weight. Hues are divided into twelve equal numbers, from02 (red/purple) to 24 (purple), with an additional 00 for neu-tral whites, greys and blacks. The greyness is described by fiveletters: (A) grey; (B) nearly grey; (C) grey/clear; (D) nearly clearand (E) clear. Weight, a subjective term, describes both light-ness and greyness, so each letter is followed by number from01 to 58. Thus the colour ‘heather’ 22 C 37 is made up of:22 (violet) C (grey/clear) 37 (medium weight)NCS Natural Colour System. The Natural Colour System(NCS), generally referred to in the UK as ‘Colour Dimensions’,was developed by the Scandinavian Colour Institute in 1978.Materials 281It is a colour language system that can describe any colour bynotation, and is based on the assumption that human beingsare able to identify six basic colours – white W; black S (notenot B); yellow Y; red R; blue B and green G. These arearranged in a colour circle, with yellow, red, blue and greenmarking the quadrants. These segments are divided into 10 per cent steps, so that orange can be described as Y 50 R(yellow with 50 per cent red). To describe the shade of acolour there is the NCS triangle, where the base of the trian-gle is a grey scale marked in 10 per cent steps from white Wto black S. The apex of the triangle represents the pure colourand is similarly marked in 10 per cent steps. Thus a colour canbe described as 1080-Y50R for an orange with 10 per centblackness, 80 per cent chromatic intensity at yellow with 50 per cent red. This system allows for a much finer subdivi-sion of colours than the BS system.RAL Colour Collection. This system is used within the build-ing industry for defining colours of coatings such as plastics,metals, glazed bricks and some paints and lacquers. It wasestablished in Germany in 1925 and developed over theyears, is now designated RAL 840-HR, and lists 194 colours.Colours are defined by four digits, the first being the colourclass: 1 yellow; 2 orange; 3 red; 4 violet; 5 blue; 6 green; 7grey; 8 brown and 9 black. The next three digits relate only tothe sequence in which the colours were filed. An officialname is also applied to each standard RAL colour, e.g. RAL6003 olive green.RAL Design System. This system has 1688 colours arrangedin a colour atlas based on a three-dimensional colour spacedefined by the co-ordinates of hue, lightness and chroma.The colours are coded with three numbers; thus reddish/yellow is 69.9 7.56 56.5. It is similar to the Natural ColourSystem except that it is based on the mathematical division ofthe whole visible wavelength spectrum, which is then dividedinto mostly 10 per cent steps. The system can be easily usedby computer programs to formulate colours.282 Architect’s Pocket BookSource: NCS Colour CentreyellowgreenindigoColour circleshowing theseven main divisionsof thecolourspectrumbluevioletredorangewhiteness blacknessNCS colour trianglemaximumcolour intensityyellowblueredgreenNCS colour circlePaintingPreparation. Careful preparation is vital if the decorative fin-ish applied is to succeed and be durable. It is important to fol-low instructions about preparing substrates, atmospheric con-ditions and drying times between coats. Ensure that the rightproduct is specified for the task, and that primers and subse-quent coats are compatible.PaintsPaints basically consist of pigments, binder, and a solvent orwater. Other ingredients are added for specific uses. Solvent-based paints are now considered environmentallyunsound and are increasingly being supplanted by water-based alternatives. These are less glossy and more water-per-meable than oil paints, but are quick-drying, odour-free, andtend not to yellow with age.Primers offer protection to the substrate from corrosion anddeterioration, and give a good base for undercoats.Undercoats, which are often just thinner versions of the fin-ishing coat, provide a base for the topcoats. Topcoats provide the durable and decorative surface, andcome in gloss, satin, eggshell and matt finishes. In addition to the paints listed overleaf there are specialistpaints such as: flame-retardant paints, which emit non-com-bustible gases when subjected to fire; intumescent coatings,which expand to form a layer of insulating foam for structuralsteel; multi-colour paints, which incorporate coloured flecks,or two-part systems which use a special roller for the top coatto reveal partially the darker colour of the first coat; siliconewater-repellent paints for porous masonry; bituminous paintsfor waterproofing metals and masonry; and epoxy-ester coat-ings to resist abrasion, oil and detergent spills.Materials 283284 Architect’s Pocket BookPaints – typical productsPrimers Use* Base* DescriptionZinc phosphate acrylic M WB for all metals inside and out, quick drying, low odourRed oxide M SB replaces red lead and calcium plumbate for ferrousmetalsEtching M SB factory pre-treatment for new galvanized metalMordant solution M WB pre-treatment of galvanized metalMicaceous iron oxide M SB for marine and industrial steelwork, resists pollutionand high humidityAcrylated rubber M, Ms BS for all metals, plaster and masonry, resists moistureWood primer W SB non-lead primer for all woods inside and outWood primer/undercoat W WB high opacity, quick-drying primer and undercoatAluminium wood primer W SB good for resinous woods and as sealer for creosotedand bituminous surfacesAlkali-resistant P SB for dry walls under SB finishes, seals stains and firedamagePlaster sealer P WB for dry porous interior surfaces, e.g. plasterboardStabilizing primer Ms SB to seal powdery and chalky surfacesUndercoatsExterior flexible W SB long-lasting, flexible, good opacity for exterior woodUndercoat all SB for use inside and out under solvent-based finishesPreservative basecoat W SB for new and bare wood to protect against blue stainand fungal decayFinishesHigh gloss all SB alkyd high gloss for all surfaces inside and outSatin, eggshell, flat W, M, P SB alkyd paints in three finishes for interior useVinyl emulsion P WB matt, soft sheen and silk finishesfor interiorsMasonry – smooth Ms WB contains fungicide, for dry masonry, rendering, con-crete etc.Masonry – textured Ms WB fine granular finish, for dry masonry etcMasonry – all seasons Ms SB flexible, smooth and good for applying in cold condi-tionsEpoxy floor Ms, C WB two-pack mid-sheen paint for interior masonry andconcrete floorsFloor W, C WB quick-drying, for interior concrete and wood floorsEcolyd gloss W, M, Ms SB high quality, mirror-finish gloss, low solvent contentProtective enamel M SB glossy, protective, quick-drying, for machineryExterior UPVC PVC WB for redecoration of weathered UPVC surfacesAcrylated rubber coating M, Ms SB for steelwork and masonry inside and out, goodagainst condensationAluminium W, M SB heat resisting to 260°C, for metals and woodTimber preservative W SB coloured, water-repellent finish for sawn timber,fences, sheds etc.Protective wood stain W SB water-repellent, mould-resistant, light-fast translucentcoloursExterior varnish W SB transparent gloss finish for exterior woodInterior varnish W WB tough, quick drying, durable clear polyurethane finishAquatech basecoat W WB flexible satin finish for bare and new woodAquatech woodstain W WB flexible satin coloured finish, resists peeling, blisteringDiamond glaze W WB clear lacquer for interior wood surfaces subject tohard wear*C = concrete; M = metal; Ms = masonry; P = plaster; SB = solvent-based; W = wood; WB = water-based.Source: ICI PaintsMaterials 285Paint covering capacity Approximate maximum areas for smooth surfaces of average porositym2/litrePreparation Fungicidal wash 30Stabilizing primer 12Etching primer 19Timber preservative – solvent based 10Timber preservative – water based 12Primers Wood primer – solvent based 13Wood primer – aluminium 16Wood primer – microporous 15Wood primer undercoat – water based 12Metal primer – solvent based 6Metal primer – water based 15Metal primer – zinc phosphate 6Acrylated rubber primer 5Finishes Undercoat – solvent based 16Emulsion – matt 15Emulsion – vinyl silk 15Matt finish – solvent based 16Eggshell finish – solvent based 16Eggshell finish – water based 15Microporous gloss – solvent based 14High gloss – solvent based 17Non-drip gloss – solvent based 13Wood stain – solvent based 25Exterior varnish – solvent based 16Interior varnish – solvent based 16Masonry paint – smooth 10Masonry paint – textured 6Acrylated rubber 6Source: ICI Paints 286 Architect’s Pocket BookWallpaper coverage for walls and ceilingsApproximate number of rolls requiredNotes:Standard wallpaper roll is 530 mm wide � 10.06 m long (21” � 33’0”)One roll will cover approximately 5 m2 (54 ft2) including wasteWalls Measurement Height of room above skirting (m)aroundwalls (m) 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.29.0 4 5 5 5 6 6 610.4 5 5 5 5 6 6 611.6 5 6 6 6 7 7 812.8 6 6 7 7 7 8 814.0 6 7 7 7 8 8 815.2 7 7 8 8 9 9 1016.5 7 8 9 9 9 10 1017.8 8 8 9 9 10 10 1119.0 8 9 10 10 10 11 1220.0 9 9 10 10 11 12 1321.3 9 10 11 11 12 12 1322.6 10 10 12 12 12 13 1423.8 10 11 12 12 13 14 1525.0 11 11 13 13 14 14 1626.0 12 12 14 14 14 15 1627.4 12 13 14 14 15 16 1728.7 13 13 15 15 15 16 1830.0 13 14 15 15 16 17 19Ceilings Measurement no.around rollsroom (m)12.0 215.0 318.0 420.0 521.0 624.0 725.0 827.0 928.0 1030.0 1130.5 12AddressesRIBA companiesRoyal Institute of British Architects66 Portland Place, London W1N 4AD tel: 020 7580 5533email: admin@inst.riba.org fax: 020 7255 1541www.riba.orgRIBA Companies Ltd1-3 Dufferin Street, London EC1Y 8NA tel: 020 7496 8300email: admin@ribac.co.uk fax: 020 7374 8300www.ribac.co.ukRIBA Information Services1-3 Dufferin Street, London EC1Y 8NA tel: 020 7496 8383email: admin@ris.gb.com fax: 020 7374 8200www.ris.gb.comRIBA Office Library Service4 Park Circus Place, Glasgow G3 6AN tel: 0141 332 6501email: library@inst.riba.com fax: 0141 332 6693www.ris.gb.comRIBA Publications56 Leonard Street, London EC2A 4JX tel: 020 7251 0791email: sales@ribabooks.com fax: 020 7608 2375www.ribabookshop.comNBS ServicesThe Close, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3RE tel: 0191 232 9594email: admin@ribsservices.co.uk fax: 0191 232 5714 www.nbsservices.co.ukTechnical Indexes LtdWilloughby Road, Bracknell RG12 8DW tel: 01344 426311email: marketing@techindex.co.uk fax: 01344 424971www.techindex.co.ukRIBA BookshopsLondon 66 Portland Place W1N 4AD tel: 020 7251 0791Belfast 2 Mount Charles BT2 1NZ tel: 028 9032 3760Birmingham Margaret Street B3 3SP tel: 0121 233 2321Leeds 8 Woodhouse Sq. LS3 1AD tel: 0113 245 6250Manchester 113 Portland Street M1 6FB tel: 0161 236 7691288 Architect’s Pocket BookAssociations, Institutes and other informationsourcesAncient Monuments SocietySt Anne’s Vestry Hall, 2 Church Entry, tel: 020 7236 3934London EC4V 5HB fax: 020 7329 3677Architects Registration Board (ARB)8 Weymouth Street, London W1N 3FB tel: 020 7580 5861email: info@arb.org.uk www.arb.org.uk fax: 020 7436 5269Architectural Association (AA)36 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3ES tel: 020 7636 0974email: info@aaschool.ac.uk www.aaschool.ac.uk fax: 020 7414 0782Arts Council of England14 Great Peter Street, London SW1P 3NQ tel: 020 7333 0100email: joebloggs@artscouncil.org.uk fax: 020 7973 5590www.artscouncil.org.ukBarbour Index plcNew Lodge, Drift Road, Windsor SL4 4RQ tel: 01344 884121email: mso@barbour-index.co.uk fax: 01344 884113www.barbour-index.co.ukBrick Development Association (BDA)Woodside House, Winkfield, Windsor SL4 2DX tel: 01344 885651email: admin@brick.org.uk www.brick.org.uk fax: 01344 890129British Board of Agrément (BBA)PO Box 195, Bucknalls Lane, Garston, tel: 01923 665300Watford WD2 7NG fax: 01923 665301email: mail@bba.star.co.uk www.bbacerts.co.ukBritish Cement Association (BCA)Century House, Telford Avenue, tel: 01344 762676Crowthorne RG45 6YS fax: 01344 761214email: admin@bca.org.uk www.bca.org.ukBritish Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd (BCSA)4 Whitehall Court, London SW1A 2ES tel: 020 7839 8566email: postroom@bcsa.org.uk www.bcsa.org.uk fax: 020 7976 1634British Research Establishment (BRE)Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford WD2 7JR tel: 01923 664000email: enquiries@bre.co.uk www.bre.co.uk fax: 01923 664787British Standards Institution (BSI)389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL tel: 020 8996 9000email: info@bsi.org.uk www.bsi.org.uk fax: 020 8996 7001Building Centre26 Store Street, London WC1E 7BT tel: 020 7692 4000email: mann@buildingcentre.co.uk fax: 020 7580 9641www.buildingcentre.co.ukBuilding Centre Bookshop26 Store Street, London WC1E 7BT tel: 020 7692 4040email: bookshop@buildingcentre.co.uk fax: 020 7636 3628www.buildingcentre.co.ukCadw – Welsh historic monumentsCrown Buildings, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF10 3NQ tel: 029 2050 0200email: cadw@wales.gsi.gov.uk fax: 029 2082 6375www.cadw.wales.gov.ukAddresses 289Centre for Accessible Environments60 Gainsford Street, London SE1 2NY tel: 020 7357 8182email: cae@globalnet.co.uk www.cae.org.uk fax: 020 7357 8183Centre for Alternative Technology (CAT)Machynlleth SY20 9AZ tel: 01654 703409email: mail.order@cat.org.uk fax: 01654 703409Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, tel: 020 8675 5211London SW12 9BS fax: 020 8675 5449email: secretary@cibse.org www.cibse.orgChartered Institute of Building (CIOB)Englemere, Kings Ride, Ascot SL5 7TB tel: 01344 630700email: reception@ciob.org.uk www.ciob.org.uk fax: 01344 630777Civic Trust17 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AW tel: 020 7930 0914email: pride@civictrust.org.uk www.civictrust.org.uk fax: 020 7321 0180Commission for Architecture & the Built Environment (CABE)7 St James Square, London SW1Y 4JU tel: 020 7839 6537email: enquiries@cabe.org.uk www.cabe.org.uk fax: 020 7839 8475ConstructionIndustry Council (CIC)26 Store Street, London WC1E 7BT tel: 020 7637 8692email: cic@cic.org.uk www.cic.org.uk fax: 020 7580 6140Copper Development Association224 London Road, St Albans AL1 1AQ tel: 01727 731200email: copperdev@compuserve.com fax: 01727 731216www.cda.org.ukCountryside Council for WalesPlas Penrhof, Penrhof Road, Bangor LL57 2LQ tel: 01248 385500www.ccw.gov.uk fax: 01248 355782Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS)2 Cockspur Street, London SW1Y 5DH tel: 020 7211 6000www.culture.gov.ukDepartment for Transport, Local Government & the Regions (DTLR)Eland House, Bressenden Place, London SW1E 5DU tel: 020 7944 3000www.dtlr.gov.ukDisabled Living Foundation380 Harrow Road, London W9 2HU tel: 020 7289 6111email: advice@dlf.org.uk www.dlf.org.uk fax: 020 7266 2922English Heritage23 Saville Row, London W1X 1AB tel: 020 7973 3000email: info@rchme.co.uk fax: 020 7973 3001www.english-heritage.org.ukEnglish NatureNorthminster House, Peterborough PE1 1UA tel: 01733 455000email: enquiries@english-nature.org.uk fax: 01733 568834www.english-nature.org.ukFederation of Master Builders14 Great James Street, London WC1N 3DP tel: 020 7242 7583email: contact@fmb.org.uk www.fmb.org.uk fax: 020 7404 0296290 Architect’s Pocket BookForests Forever26 Oxenden Street, London SW1Y 4EL tel: 020 7839 1891www.forestsforever.org.uk fax: 020 7839 6594Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)Unit D, Station Buildings, Llanidloes SY18 6EB tel: 01686 413916email: fsc-uk@fsc-uk.demon.co.uk fax: 01686 412176www.fsc-uk.demon.co.ukFriends of the Earth Ltd26 Underwood Street, London N1 7JQ tel: 020 7490 1555email: info@foe.co.uk www.foe.co.uk fax: 020 7490 0881Glass and Glazing Federation (GGF)44 Borough High Street, London SE1 1XB tel: 020 7403 7177email: info@ggf.org.uk www.ggf.org.uk fax: 020 7357 7458Guild of Architectural Ironmongers8 Stepney Green, London E1 3JU tel: 020 7790 3431email: ironmongers@compuserve.com fax: 020 7790 8517www.gai.org.ukHealth and Safety Executive (HSE)2 Southwark Bridge, London SE1 9HS tel: 020 7717 6000www.hse.gov.uk fax: 020 7717 6717Heating & Ventilating Contractors AssociationESCA House, 34 Palace Court, London W2 4JG tel: 020 7313 4900email: contact@hvca.org.uk www.hvca.org.uk fax: 020 7727 9268Historic Buildings & Monuments for N. Ireland5-33 Hill Street tel: 028 9054 3037Belfast BT1 2LA fax: 028 9054 3111www.nics.gov.uk//ehsHistoric ScotlandLongmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH9 1SH tel: 0131 668 8707www.historic-scotland.gov.uk fax: 0131 668 8669HMSO – see Stationery OfficeInstitution of Civil Engineers (ICE)1 Great George Street, London SW1P 3AA tel: 020 7222 7722www.ice.org.uk fax: 020 7222 7500Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE)Savoy Place, London WC2R 0BL tel: 020 7240 1871email: postmaster@iee.org.uk www.iee.org.uk fax: 020 7240 7735Institution of Mechanical Engineers1 Birdcage Walk, London SW1H 9JJ tel: 020 7222 7899email: enquiries@imeche.org.uk fax: 020 7222 4557www.imeche.org.ukInstitution of Structural Engineers (ISE)11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH tel: 020 7235 4535email: mail@instructe.org.uk fax: 020 7235 4294www.instructe.org.ukLandscape Institute6 Barnard Mews, London SW11 1QU tel: 020 7738 9166email: mail@l-i.org.uk www.l-i.org.uk fax: 020 7738 9134Lead Development Association International42 Weymouth Street, London W1N 3LQ tel: 020 7499 8422email: enq@ldaint.org fax: 020 7493 1555www.ldaint.orgLead Sheet AssociationHawkwell Business Centre, Pembury, tel: 01892 822773Tunbridge Wells TN2 4AH fax: 01892 823003email: leadsa@globalnet.co.ukwww.leadroof.comLighting Industry Federation (LIF)207 Balham High Road, London SW17 7BQ tel: 020 8675 5432email: info@lif.co.uk www.lif.co.uk fax: 020 8673 5880Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF)3 Whitehall Place, London SW1A 2HH tel: 020 7270 3000www.maff.gov.uk fax: 020 7270 8125National Building Specification Ltd (NBS)Mansion House Chambers, The Close, tel: 0191 232 9594Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3RE fax: 0191 232 5714email: info@nbsservices.co.ukwww.nbsservices.co.ukNational Trust36 Queen Anne’s Gate, London SW1H 9AS tel: 020 7222 9251www.nationaltrust.org.uk fax: 020 7222 5097Ordnance SurveyRomsey Marsh, Maybush, Southampton SO16 4GU tel: 023 8079 2792email: enquiries@ordsvy.gov.uk fax: 023 8079 2452www.ordsvy.gov.ukPlanning Appeals Commission (N. Ireland)Park House, 87 Great Victoria Street, tel: 028 9024 4710Belfast BT2 7AG fax: 028 9031 2536email: info@pacni.gov.uk www.pacni.gov.ukPlanning Inspectorate (England)Room 11/09 Tollgate House, Houlton Street, tel: 0117 987 8075Bristol BS2 9DJ fax: 0117 987 8139Planning Inspectorate (Wales)Crown Buildings, Cathays Park, tel: 029 2082 5670Cardiff CF10 3NQ fax: 029 2082 5150Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland (RIAS)15 Rutland Square, Edinburgh EH1 2BE tel: 0131 229 7545www.rias.org.uk fax: 0131 228 2188Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) (see also p. 287)66 Portland Place, London W1N 4AD tel: 020 7580 5533email: admin@inst.riba.org www.riba.org fax: 020 7255 1541Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS)12 Great George St, Parliament Square, tel: 020 7222 7000London SW1P 3AD fax: 020 7334 3800www.rics.orgRoyal Town Planning Institute (RTPI)26 Portland Place, London W1N 9BE tel: 020 7636 9107email: online@rtpi.org.uk www.rtpi.org.uk fax: 020 7323 1582Scottish Executive Inquiry Reporters Unit (SEIRU)2 Greenside Lane, Edinburgh EH1 3AG tel: 0131 244 5649email: seiru@Scotland.gov.uk www.seiru.gov.uk fax: 0131 244 5680Scottish Natural Heritage12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 2AS tel: 0131 447 4784www.snh.org.uk fax: 0131 446 2279Addresses 291292 Architect’s Pocket BookSociety for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB)37 Spital Square, London E1 6DY tel: 020 7377 1644email: info@spab.org.uk www.spab.org.uk fax: 020 7247 5296Stationery Office (formerly HMSO)PO Box 29, Norwich NR3 1GN tel: 0870 600 5522email: book.enquiries@theso.co.uk fax: 0870 600 5533www.itsofficial.netStationery Office Bookshops123 Kingsway, London WC2B 6PQ tel: 020 7242 639368 Bull Street, Birmingham B4 6AD tel: 0121 236 969633 Wine Street, Bristol BS1 2BQ tel: 0117 926 43069 Princess Street, Manchester M60 8AS tel: 0161 834 720116 Arthur Street, Belfast BT1 4GD tel: 028 9023 845118 High Street, Cardiff CF1 2BZ tel: 029 2039 554871 Lothian Road, Edinburgh EH3 9AZ tel: 0870 606 5566Stone Federation Great Britain56 Leonard Street, London EC2A 4JX tel: 020 7608 5094www.stone-federationgb.org.uk fax: 020 7608 5081Timber Trade Federation26 Oxendon Street, London SW1Y 4EL tel: 020 7839 1891email: ttf@ttf.co.uk www.ttf.co.uk fax: 020 7930 0094Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA)17 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AS tel: 020 7930 8903email: tcpa@tcpa.org.uk www.tcpa.org.uk fax: 020 7930 3280TRADA Technology LtdStocking Lane, Hughenden Valley. tel: 01494 563091High Wycombe HP14 4ND fax: 01494 565487email: information@trada.co.ukwww.tradatechnology.co.ukWater Regulations Advisory Service (WRAS)Fern Close, Pen-y-fan Industrial Estate tel: 01495 248454Oakdale NP11 3EH fax: 01495 249234Water Research Centre plcPO Box 16, Henley Road, Medmenham, tel: 01491 571531Marlow SL7 2HD fax: 01491 579094Which?PO Box 44, Hertford X, SG14 1SH tel: 01992 822800email: which@which.net www.which.net fax: 020 7830 8585Zinc Development Association (ZDA)42 Weymouth Street, London W1N 3LQ tel: 020 7499 6636email: enq@zda.org fax: 020 7493 1555Addresses 293Manufacturers – referred to in the textACP Concrete LtdRisehow Industrial Estate, Flimby, tel: 01900 814659Maryport CA15 8PD fax: 01900 816200Avon Manufacturing LtdPO Box 42, Montague Road, Warwick CV34 5LS tel: 01926 496331email: avonman.warwick@virgin.net fax: 01926 400291Autopa LtdTriton Park, Brownsover Road, Rugby CV21 1SG tel: 01788 550556email: info@autopa.co.ukwww.autopa.co.uk fax: 01788 550265Banham Patent Locks Ltd233 Kensington High Street, London W8 6SF tel: 020 7622 5151email: security@banham.com www.banham.com fax: 020 7376 1232Brash, John & Co LtdThe Old Shipyard, Gainsborough DN21 1NG tel: 01427 613858email: info@johnbrash.co.uk fax: 01427 810218www.johnbrash.co.ukBritish GypsumEast Leake, Loughborough LE12 6JT tel: 08705 456123www.british.gypsum.bpb.com fax: 08705 456356Broderick Structures LtdForsyth Road, Sheerwater, Woking GU21 5RR tel: 01483 750207fax: 01483 750209Buckingham NurseriesTingewick Road, Buckingham MK18 4AE tel: 01280 813556email: enquiries@bucknur.com fax: 01280 815491Cape Casil Systems LtdIver Lane, Uxbridge UB8 2JQ tel: 01895 463400www.capecasil.com fax: 01895 259262Caradon Catnic LtdPontygwindy Estate, Caerphilly CF8 2WJ tel: 029 2033 7900fax: 029 2086 3178Caradon Jones LtdWhittington Road, Oswestry SY11 1HZ tel: 01691 653251fax: 01691 658623Caradon Plumbing Solutions; StelradPO Box 103, National Avenue, tel: 01482 498402Kingston-upon-Hull HU5 4JN fax: 01482 498664Chubb Physical Security ProductsPO Box 61, Wednesfield Road, tel: 01902 455111Wolverhampton WV10 0EW fax: 01902 351961email: info@chubb-safes.comwww.chubb-safes.comConcord SylvaniaAvis Way, Newhaven BN9 0ED tel: 01273 515811fax: 01273 611101Corus: tubes and pipesPO Box 101, Welson Road, Corby NN17 5UA tel: 01536 402121www.corusgroup.com fax: 01536 404111294 Architect’s Pocket BookCox Building ProductsIckfield Way Industrial Estate, Tring HP23 4RF tel: 01442 824222email: enquiries@coxdome.co.uk fax: 01442 820550CSC Forest Products LtdStation Road, Cowie, Stirling FK7 7BQ tel: 01786 812921www.cscfp.com fax: 01786 815622Duplus Domes Ltd370 Melton Road, Leicester LE4 7SL tel: 0116 261 0710email: sales@duplus.co.uk www.duplus.co.uk fax: 0116 261 0539GE Lighting Europe42 Wood Street,Kingston KT1 1UZ tel: 020 8626 8500www.gelighting.com fax: 020 8727 4495Glynwed BrickhouseBrickhouse Lane, West Bromwich B70 0DY tel: 0121 520 6171fax: 0121 521 4551Hoogovens Aluminium Building Systems LtdHaydock Lane, Haydock, St Helens WA11 9TY tel: 01942 295500email: enquiries@hoogovens.co.uk fax: 01942 272136www.hoogovens.co.ukIbstock Building Products LtdLeicester Road, Ibstock LE67 6HS tel: 01530 261999email: marketing@ibstock.co.uk fax: 01530 264324www.ibstock.co.ukICI Paints DivisionWexham Road, Slough SL2 5DS tel: 01753 550000www.dulux.com fax: 01753 578218Ideal-Standard LtdNational Avenue, Kingston-upon-Hull HU5 4HS tel: 01482 346461email: brochures@ideal.standard.co.uk fax: 01482 445886www.ideal.standard.co.ukJELD-WEN UK LtdWatch House Lane, Doncaster DN5 9LR tel: 01302 394000www.jeld-wen.co.uk fax: 01302 787383Latham, James plcLeeside Wharf, Mount Pleasant Hill, London E5 9NG tel: 020 8806 3333www.lathams.co.uk fax: 020 8806 6464Lee Strip Steel LtdMeadow Hall, Sheffield S9 1HU tel: 0114 243 7272www.avestasheffield.com fax: 0114 243 1277Luxcrete LtdPremier House, Disraeli Road, Park Royal, tel: 020 8965 7292London NW10 7BT fax: 020 8961 6337Marley Building Materials LtdStation Road, Coleshill, Birmingham B46 1HP tel: 01675 468400email: mbm@mbm.marley.co.uk fax: 01675 468485www.marley.co.ukMasonite CP LtdJason House, Kerry Hill, Horsforth, Leeds LS18 4JR tel: 0113 258 7689www.masonite.com fax: 0113 259 0015McAlpine Slate, Alfred LtdPenrhyn Quarry, Bethesda, Bangor LL57 4YG tel: 01248 600656email: slate@alfred.mcalpine.com fax: 01248 601171www.amslate.comMetra Non-Ferrous Metals LtdPindar Road, Hoddesden EN11 0DE tel: 01992 460455fax: 01992 451207Midland Lead Manufacturers LtdWoodville, Swadlincote DE11 8ED tel: 01283 224555email: sales@midlandlead.co.uk fax: 01283 550284NCS Colour Centre71 Ancaster Green, Henley-on Thames, RG9 1TS tel: 01491 411717email: info@ncscolour.co.uk www.ncscolour.co.uk fax: 01491 411231Osram LtdPO Box 17, East Lane, Wembley HA9 7PG tel: 020 8904 4321www.osram.co.uk fax: 020 8901 1222Philips Lighting Ltd420 London Road, Croydon CR9 3QR tel: 020 8689 2166www.philips.com fax: 020 8665 5703Pilkington United Kingdom LtdPrescot Road, St Helens WA10 3TT tel: 01744 692000email: info@pilkington.com www.pilkington.com fax: 01744 613044PremdorHargreaves Road, Groundwell Industrial Estate, tel: 01793 708200Swindon SN2 5AZ fax: 01793 708290www.premdor.comPressalit LtdRiverside Business Park, Dansk Way, Leeds Road, tel: 01943 607651Ilkley LS29 8JZ fax: 01943 607214Range Cylinders LtdTadman Street, Wakefield WF1 5QU tel: 01924 376026fax: 01924 203428Redland Roofing Systems LtdRegent House, Station Approach, Dorking RH4 1TG tel: 01306 872000email: roofing@redland.co.uk www.Redland.co.uk fax: 01306 872111Rigidal Industries LtdBlackpole Trading Estate, Worcester WR3 8ZJ tel: 01905 750500email: mailbox@rigidal.co.uk www.rigidal.co.uk fax: 01905 750555Ruberoid Building Products LtdTewin Road, Welwyn Garden City AL7 1BP tel: 01707 822222email: rbp-wgc@ruberoid.co.uk www.ruberoid.co.uk fax: 01707 375060Tarmac Topblock LtdCannock Rd, Featherstone, tel: 01902 305060Wolverhampton WV10 7HP fax: 01902 384542www.topblock.co.ukTitan PlastechBarbot Hall Industrial Estate, Mandham Road, tel: 01709 538300Rotherham S61 4RJ fax: 01709 538301Ubbink (UK) LtdBorough Road, Brackley NN13 7TB tel: 01280 700211www.ubbinkrega.com fax: 01280 705332Addresses 295Velux Company LtdWoodside Way, Glenrothes, East Fife KY7 4ND tel: 01592 772211email: enquiries@velux.co.uk www.velux.co.uk fax: 01592 771839Vent-Axia LtdFleming Way, Crawley RH10 2NN tel: 01293 526062email: info@vent-axia.com www.vent-axia.com fax: 01293 552552Williamette Europe LtdMaitland House, Warrior Square, tel: 01702 619044Southend-on-Sea SS1 2JY fax: 01712 617162email: sales@williamette.europe.comwww.williamette.europe.comXpelair LtdMorley Way, Peterborough PE2 9JJ tel: 01733 456189email: info@redring.co.uk www.redring.co.uk fax: 01733 310606Zehnder LtdUnit 6, Invincible Road, Farnborough GU14 7QU tel: 01252 515151email: sales@zehnder.co.uk www.zehnder.co.uk fax: 01252 522528296 Architect’s Pocket BookSourcesActivities and Spaces: Dimensional Data for HousingDesign Noble, J. (ed) 1983 The Architectural PressAJ Handbook of Architectural Ironmongery Underwood,G. and Planck, J. 1977 The Architectural PressBarbour Index ’00 Barnes, C. (ed) 2000 Barbour Index plcBuilding & Structural Tables Blake, F. H. 1947 Chapman &HallBuilding a Sustainable Future 1998 DETRBuilding Construction McKay, W.B.M. 1963 LongmanBuilding for Energy Efficiency 1997 CICThe Building Regulations Explained & Illustrated Powell-Smith, V. and Billington, M. J. 1995 Blackwell ScienceBuilding Regulations 1991 Approved Documents DETR1991–2000 The Stationery OfficeThe Care and Repair of Thatched Roofs Brockett, P. 1986SPABThe Culture of Timber McCartney, K. 1994 University ofPortsmouthDampness in Buildings Oxley, T. A. and Gobert, E. G. 1994Butterworth-HeinemannDesigning for Accessibility 1999 Centre for AccessibleEnvironmentsEasibrief Haverstock, H. 1998 Miller FreemanFireplace Design and Construction Baden-Powell, C. 1984LongmanFlat Roofing – A Guide to Good Practice March, F. 1983Tarmac Building Products LtdThe Good Wood Guide Counsell, S. 1996 Friends of theEarthA Guide to Planning Appeals The Planning Inspectorate 1997DoEA Guide to the Security of Homes Central Office ofInformation 1986 HMSOSources – continuedHandbook of Fixings and Fastenings Launchbury, B. 1971Architectural PressHillier Designer’s Guide to Landscape Plants 1999 HillierRomseyHome Security & Safety Good Housekeeping Guide 1995Ebury PressIllustrated Dictionary of Building Marsh, P. 1982 LongmanLighting for people, energy efficiency & architecture 1999DETRListing Buildings – The work of English Heritage 1997English HeritageThe Macmillan Encyclopaedia Isaacs, A. (ed) 1986MacmillanManaging construction for healthand safety, CDMRegulations 1994 Approved Code of Practice 1995 Health & Safety CommissionMaterials for Architects and Builders Lyons, A. R. 1997Hodder Headline GroupMathematical Models Cundy, H. M. and Rollett, A. P. 1981Tarquin PublicationsMetric Handbook Adler, D. 1998 Architectural PressParty Wall etc. Act: explanatory booklet 1997 DoEThe Penguin Dictionary of Building Maclean, J. H. andScott, J. S. 1995 Penguin BooksPlanning: A Guide for Householders Central Office ofInformation 1996 DoERecognising Wood Rot & Insect Damage in BuildingsBravery, A. F. 1987 DoEThe Right Hedge for You (leaflet) 1999 DETRSafety in the Home DoE (leaflet) 1976 HMSOSeries ‘A’ Design Data CIBSE Guide 1980 CIBSESpace in the Home Metric Edition DoE 1968 HMSOSpaces in the Home – Bathrooms and WCs DoE 1972HMSOSpaces in the Home – Kitchens and laundering spacesDoE 1972 HMSO298 Architect’s Pocket BookSpecification ’94 Williams, A. 1994 Emap ArchitectureStone in Building Ashurst, J. and Dimes, F. 1984 Stone FederationThatch: A Manual for Owners, Surveyors, Architects andBuilders West, R. C. 1987 David & CharlesTomorrow’s World McLaren, D., Bullock, S. and Yousuf, N.1998 Friends of the EarthTree Planting Year 1973 circular 99/72 DoEWater Conservation in Business 1999 DETRWater Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 DETRWhat Listing Means – A guide for Owners andOccupiers 1994 Dept of National HeritageThe Which? Book of Plumbing and Central HeatingHolloway, D. 1985 Consumers’ AssociationWhitaker’s Concise Almanack Marsden, H. (ed.) 1996 J. Whitaker & Sons LtdWRAS Water Regulations Guide Water RegulationsAdvisory Scheme (WRAS)CIC = Construction Industry CouncilDoE = Department of the Environment (now DETR)DETR = Department of the Environment, Transport & theRegionsHMSO = Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (now the Stationery Office)SPAB = Society for the Protection of Ancient BuildingsAddresses 299Index‘A’ series paper & envelopes, 26‘A’ series paper sizes, 24–5Addresses:associations & institutions,288–92manufacturers, 293–6RIBA, 287Aggregate, 108Aluminium roofing, 227–8Ambulant disabled WC, 85Anthropometric data, 64–6Asphalt roofing, 235Backflow protection, 125Balustrades, 167Basins, 77Bathroom planning, 76–7Baths, 76Beam formula, timber, 101Bedroom planning, 74–5Beds, 74Beetles, wood boring, 266–8Bending moment formulae, 100Bicycle parking, 81Bicycles, 79Bi-metal compatibility, 211Bidets, 77Bituminous felt roofing, 235Blockboard, 270Blocks:compressive strength, 193sizes, 193types, 193Blockwork:characteristic strength, 107drawing conventions, 30mortar mixes, 195wall ties, 192Boards, building, 269–75Bolts, 278Bookshelves, 69Bricks:compressive strengths, 192drawing conventions, 30frost resistance, 192paving patterns, 198salt content, 192sizes, 191specials, 196–7weights, 191Brickwork:bonds, 194characteristic strength, 107joints, 195mortar mixes, 195slenderness ratio, 106wall ties, 192British Board of Agrément, 56British Standards Institute, 56BS colour system, 280Building boards, 269–75Building Regulations:approved documents, 52–3Calcium silicate board, 275Cavity wall trays, 202Cavity wall ties, 192CDM Regulations, 54–5CE mark, 57Ceiling joists, 105Celsius, 11CEN, 57Centigrade, 11Central heating systems, 136Chairs, 68,73Check valves, 125–6Chimneys, 172–3Chipboard, 269CI/SfB Construction Index, 34–9Circuits, electric, 146Cisterns:cold water, 127water supply regs., 125Clayware definitions, 198Cleaning utensils, 78Clear float glass, 237Climate maps, 1–6Colour systems, 280–2Index 301Colour circle, 280, 282Concrete:blocks, 193exposure conditions, 109grades, 108lintels, 110–11mixes, 110paving slabs, 193prestressed lintels, 111ready mixed, 108reinforcement cover, 109types & treatments, 199Condensation, causes of, 204 Conservation Area Consent, 44Conversion factors, 14–15Cookers, 70–71Copper cylinders, 129Copper roofing, 223–6CPD, 57Cupboards, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75Cylinders, hot water, 129Dampness in buildings, 204Damp-proof courses, 202Damp-proof membranes, 203Death watch beetle, 267, 268Decibels, 164–5Demolition, drawingconventions, 28Dining room planning, 72–3Dining tables, 72Disabled WC, 84–5Dishwashers, 71Doors:bi-fold, 177drawing conventions, 31fire, 175french, 175garage, 176glazing, 190handing, 178imperial sizes, 175ironmongery, 178, 188louvre, 177maximum areas, 133metric sizes, 174sliding glazed, 176traditional, 179Drains:gradients, 119inspection covers, 120single stack system, 121Drawing conventions: 28–31Drinking water, 125Dry rot, 263Electric:circuits in the home, 146fuses, 144graphic symbols, 145Electricity, comparative costs, 144Energy Saving, 59–63Envelope sizes, 26Environmental control glass, 242–5EOATA, 57Eta, 58Euronorm, 57Extractor fans, 142–3Fahrenheit, 11Fans, extractor, 142–3Fibonacci series, 22Fibonacci spiral, 23Fibonacci, Leonardo, 22–3Fireplaces:hearths,171recesses, 170Fire resistance for structuralelements, 99Fire resistant glass, 238Flat roofs, 233–6Float glass, clear, 237Floor joists, 104Floors, imposed loads, 94–5Flues, 172–3Fluorescent lamps,and tubes, 159–61Flushing cisterns, 126Foul drains, 119Forest Stewardship Council, 250Freezers, 71, 79Fuel bunker, 78Furniture and fittings, 68–79Furniture beetle, 266, 268Fuses, electric, 144Garage doors, 176Garages, domestic, 80Garden tools, 79Garden water supply, 61–2, 126Geometric data, 18302 IndexGeometric solids, 19–21Glass:blocks, 248–9clear float, 237environmental control, 242–5fire resistant, 238laminated, 241low E, 244–5mirror, 237–8safety, 240–41screen, 246–7screen printed, 237solar control, 242–5surveillance, 238textured, 237toughened, 241Glazing, protection, 168Golden section, 22–3Gradients, 28, 169Greek alphabet, 17Green issues, 59–63Guarding, 167Gutters, rainwater, 122Hall planning, 79Halogen lamps, 156–8Handrails, 167, 168Hardboard, 270Hardwood:mouldings, 261sawn sizes, 259species, 256–8Hearths, 170–171Heating systems, 136Heat loss calculation, 135Heat losses, 134Hedges, 88HID lamps, 162–3Hollow steel sections, 114–5Hoses, 125, 126Hot water:cylinders, 129storage, 128systems, 136usage, 128water regs., 126House extensions, 42Human figure, 64–5Imperial/metric equivalents, 16Imperial paper sizes, 27Imperial units, 12Imposed loads:floor, 94–5roof, 96–7wind, 98Incandescent lamps, 153–5Inspection chamber covers, 120Insulation:cisterns, 125pipes, 124thermal, 132–5International paper sizes, 24–6ISO, 58Joists:rolled steel, 113timber, 104–5Kelvin, 11Kepler, 19Kepler-Poinsot star polyhedra, 21Kitchen:appliances, 71cabinets, 71planning, 70–71triangle, 70K-values, 131Laminated glass, 241Laminboard, 271Lamp bases, 152Lamp comparison, 161Lamps, 152–63Land drains, 119Landscape:drawing conventions, 29green issues, 62Laundry planning, 78Lead roofing, 220–22Leaded lights, 187Lighting:colour rendering index, 151colour temperature, 151glossary, 147–50lamps, 152–63light levels, 151Lintels:concrete, 110–11steel, 116–8Listed Building Consent, 44, 50–1Listed Buildings, 50–1Index 303Living room planning, 68–9Longhorn beetle, 267, 268Louvre doors, 177Low E glass, 244–5Machine screws and bolts, 278Mastic asphalt roofing, 235Matchboarding, 272Materials:drawing conventions, 30weights, 89–92MDF, 271Measurement of planeand solid figures, 18Medium density fibreboard, 271Medium hardboard, 271Mercury lamps, 162–3Metal halide lamps, 162–3Metals:finishes, 213industrial techniques, 212used in construction, 211Meter boxes, 79Metric conversion factors, 14–15Metric system, 8–10Metric/imperial equivalents, 16Mirror glass, 237–8MOAT, 58Mortar mixes:blockwork, 195brickwork, 195stonework, 201Nails, 278NCS Natural Colour system,280–82Newtons,93Noise levels, 164Oriented strand board OSB, 272Ovens, 71Paints:colour systems, 280covering capacity, 285preparation, 283typical products, 284types, 283Paper sizes:imperial, 27international, 24–6Parking bay sizes, 81Party wall awards, 48–9Patent glazing, 187Paving slabs, concrete, 193Perambulator, 79Permissionsother than planning, 44–5Perspective drawing,setting up, 32–3Pianos, 69Pipes:rainwater, 122overflow, 125single stack, 121Pitches, minimum roof, 214Planning:bathroom, 76–7bedroom, 74–5cleaning utensils, 78dining room, 62–3fuel bunker, 78garages, 80garden tools, 79hall, 79kitchen, 70–71laundry, 78living room, 68–9parking bays, 81Planning appeals, 46–8Planning permission, 41–4Plaster:external rendering, 205glossary, 206–7pre-mixed, 208–10Plasterboard, 274Plastics:abbreviations, 277commonly used, 276industrial techniques, 276Platonic solids, 20Plywood, 273Poinsot, 19Polyhedra, 19–21Precast concrete lintels, 110Premixed plasters, 208–10Prestressed concrete lintels, 111Profiled metal sheet roofing, 232–3Quality Assurance, 58Radiators, 137Rain:304 Indexannual average, 4wind driven, 5Rainwater disposal, 122RAL colour, 281Ready-mixed concrete, 108Refrigerators, 71Reinforced concrete lintels, 110–11Reinforcement cover, 109Rendering, external, 205Rendering glossary, 206–7RIBA addresses, 287Rising damp, 202–4Rocks, 200Roof windows, 184–5Roofing:aluminium, 227–8asphalt, 235bituminous felt, 235copper, 223–6flat, non-metallic, 233–6lead, 220–22minimum pitches, 214profiled metal sheet, 232–3shingles, 216–7slates, 214stainless steel, 230–31thatch, 218–9tiles, 215zinc, 228–30Rooflights, 133, 186–7Rot, wood, 263–5Roughcast glass, 237RSJs, 113R-values, 131Safety glass, 190, 240–41Sanitary provision forpublic buildings, 82–3SAP energy ratings, 132Screen glass, 246–7Screws, 278Sea areas, 7Security fittings, 188–9Shingles, 216–7Showers, 76SI units, 8–10Single ply roofing membranes, 236Single stack drainage system, 121Sink units, 71Slates, roofing, 214Snow, number of days, 6Sources, 297–9Sodium lamps, 162–3Softwood:mouldings, 260sawn sizes, 253species, 254–5Solar control glass, 242–5Solids, platonic, 20Solids, regular geometric, 19–21Sound levels, 164–5Sound transmission loss, 166Stainless steel roofing, 230–31Stairs:building regulations, 167–9drawing conventions, 28Standard wire gauge, 279Standards, 56–8Steel:hollow sections, 114–5joists (RSJs), 113lintels, 116–8safe load tables, 112–3universal beams, 112Stonework:drawing conventions, 30joint thickness, 201mortar mixes, 201rock types, 200typical stones, 200Stop valves, 125Storage cisterns:cold water, 127water supply regs., 125Subsoils, safe loads, 102Sustainability, 59–63, 250Système International d’Unités,8–10Tables:coffee, 68dining, 72–3Temperature:January average, 2July average, 3colour (lighting), 151metric/imperial, 11recommended indoor, 134Textured glass, 237Thatch roofing, 218–9Thermal:conductivity, 130Index 305insulation, 124, 125, 132–5resistance, 130resistivity, 130transmittance, 130Tiles, roofing, 215Timber:beam formula, 101ceiling joists, 105classes for joinery, 252drawing conventions, 30durability classes, 251floor joists, 104fungi & rot, 263–5grade stress, 103hardwoods, 256–8moduli of elasticity, 103moisture content, 251mouldings, 260–61nomenclature, 251sizes, 252, 253, 259softwoods, 254–5sustainability, 250veneers, 262woodworm, 266–8Toughened glass, 241Traps, sizes and seals, 119Trees for towns, 86–7Tree preservation orders, 45Tubes, fluorescent, 159–61Tungsten-filament lamps, 153–5Tungsten-halogen lamps, 156–8UEAtc, 58Uniclass, 40Universal beams, 112Urinals, 77, 126U-values, 130, 132Vehicle sizes, 81Veneers, wood, 262Ventilation:air changes, 142building regs., 138–41extractor fans, 142–3loss of, 135means of, 138–41Wallpaper coverage, 286Wall ties, 192Washbasins, 77Washing machines, 78Water:cisterns, cold, 127cylinders, hot, 129hardness, 127penetration, 204storage, 127–9usage, hot, 128Water Supply Regulations,123–6WCs:ambulant disabled, 85in public buildings, 82–3sizes, 77water supply regs., 126wheelchair user, 84Weights of materials, 89–92Wet rot, 263Wheelchair:access, 67dimensions, 66garage access, 80wc compartments, 84–5Wind driven rain, 5Wind loads, 98Wind speeds, 1Windows:bay, 180casement, 180double hung, 181, 183drawing conventions, 31fixed lights, 181glazing, 182, 190ironmongery, 182, 189leaded lights, 187max. permitted areas, 133roof, 184–5standard, 180–82tilt & turn, 181top hung, 180traditional, 183Wine racks, 79Wire gauge, 279Wiring, electric, 146Wood:boring beetles, 266–8fungi & rot, 263–5screws, 278veneers, 262Woodworm, 266–8Zinc roofing, 228–30NotesThis Page Intentionally Left BlankNotesThis Page Intentionally Left BlankNotesThis Page Intentionally Left BlankNotesThis Page Intentionally Left BlankNotesThis Page Intentionally Left BlankArchitect’s Pocket BookCopyright PageContentsPrefaceAcknowledgementsChapter 1. General InformationClimate mapsMetric systemMetric unitsTemperatureImperial unitsConversion factorsGreek alphabetGeometric dataPaper sizesDrawing conventionsPerspective drawingCI/SfB Construction IndexUniclassChapter 2. PlanningPlanning and other permissionsBuilding Regulations 1991Standards – in the construction industrySustainability, energy saving and green issuesAnthropometric dataFurniture and fittings dataMiscellaneous dataSanitary provision for public buildingsTrees for townsHedgesChapter 3. StructuresWeights of materialsNewtonsImposed loadsFire resistanceBending moments and beam formulaeSafe loads on subsoilsTimberBrickwork and blockworkConcreteSteelworkChapter 4. ServicesDrainageRainwater disposalWater supply regulationsWater storageU-, R- and K- valuesThermal insulationHeat lossesCentral heating and hot water systemsVentilationElectrical installationLightingSoundChapter 5. Building ElementsStairs and gradientsFireplacesChimneys and fluesDoorsWindowsSecurity fittingsChapter 6. MaterialsBrickwork and blockworkStoneworkDampness in buildingsPlaster and renderMetalsRoofingGlassTimberBuilding boardsPlasticsNails and screwsPaintsAddressesSourcesIndexelements, carcass(20)(21) Walls, external walls(22) Internal walls, partitions(23) Floors, galleries(24) Stairs, ramps(25)–(26)(27) Roofs(28) Building frames, other primaryelements(29) Parts of elements (21) to (28),cost summary(3–) Secondary elements, completion if described separately from (2–)(30)(31) Secondary elements to externalwalls, external doors,windows(32) Secondary elements to internalwalls, internal doors(33) Secondary elements to floors(34) Secondary elements to stairs(35) Suspended ceilings(36)(37) Secondary elements to roofs:rooflights etc(38) Other secondary elements(39) Parts of elements (31) to (38),cost summaryGeneral Information 37(4–) Finishes, if described separately(40)(41) Wall finishes, external(42) Wall finishes, internal(43) Floor finishes(44) Stair finishes(45) Ceiling finishes(46)(47) Roof finishes(48) Other finishes to structure(49) Parts of elements (41) to (48),cost summary(5–) Services, mainly pipe andducted(50)–(51)(52) Waste disposal, drainage(53) Liquids supply(54) Gases supply(55) Space cooling(56) Space heating(57) Air conditioning, ventilation(58) Other piped, ducted services(59) Parts of elements (51) to (58),cost summary(6–) Services, mainly electrical(60)(61) Electrical supply(62) Power(63) Lighting(64) Communications(65)(66) Transport(67)(68) Security, control, other services(69) Parts of elements (61) to (68),cost summary(7–) Fittings(70)(71) Circulation fittings(72) Rest, work fittings(73) Culinary fittings(74) Sanitary, hygiene fittings(75) Cleaning, maintenance fittings(76) Storage, screening fittings(77) Special activity fittings(78) Other fittings(79) Parts of elements (71) to (78),cost summary(8–) *Loose furniture, equipment(80)(81) Circulation loose equipment(82) Rest, work loose equipment(83) Culinary loose equipment(84) Sanitary, hygiene loose equipment(85) Cleaning, maintenance looseequipment(86) Storage, screening loose equipment(87) Special activity loose equipment(88) Other(89) Parts of elements (81) to (88),cost summary(9–) External, other elements(90) External works(98) Other elements(99) Parts of elements, cost summary* Use only (7–) if preferred38 Architect’s Pocket BookTable 2 ConstructionsTable 3 MaterialsTables 2 and 3 are positioned in the third division of the label,either separately or together as required,e.g. Ff = precast blocksA* Constructions, formsB*C*D*E Cast in situ workF Blockwork, blocksG Large blocks, panelsH Section work, sectionsI Pipework, pipesJ Wirework, meshesK Quilt work, quiltsL Flexible sheets (proofing)M Malleable sheetsN Rigid sheets for overlappingOP Thick coating workQR Rigid sheetsS Rigid tilesT Flexible sheetsUV Film coating & impregnationW Planting, plants, seedsX ComponentsY Formless work, productsZ Jointsa*b*c*d*e Natural stonef Precast with binderg Clay (dried, fired)h Metali Woodj Vegetable & animal materialsklm Inorganic fibresn Rubbers, plastics etco Glassp Aggregates, loose fillsq Lime & cement binders, mortars, concretesr Clay, gypsum, magnesia & plastic binders, mortarss Bituminous materialst Fixing & jointing materialsu Protective & process/propertymodifying materialsv Paintsw Ancillary materialsxy Composite materialsz Substances* Used for special purposes e.g.: resource scheduling by computer* Used for special purposes e.g.: resource scheduling by computerGeneral Information 39Table 4 Activities, requirementsSources: RIBA Information Services, NBS ServicesActivities, aids(A) Administration & managementactivities, aids(Af) Administration, organization(Ag) Communications(Ah) Preparation of documentation(Ai) Public relations, publicity(Aj) Controls, procedures(Ak) Organizations(Am) Personnel roles(An) Education(Ao) Research, development(Ap) Standardization, rationalization(Aq) Testing, evaluating(A1) Organizing offices, projects(A2) Financing, accounting(A3) Designing, physical planning(A4) Cost planning, cost control,tenders, contracts (A5) Production planning, progresscontrol(A6) Buying, delivery(A7) Inspection, quality control(A8) Handing over, feedback,appraisal(A9) Other activities, arbitration,insurance(B) Construction plant, tools(B1) Protection plant(B2) Temporary (non-protective)works(B3) Transport plant(B4) Manufacture, screening, storage plant(B5) Treatment plant(B6) Placing, pavement, compactionplant(B7) Hand tools(B8) Ancillary plants(B9) Other construction plant, tools(C) Used for special purposes(D) Construction operations(D1) Protecting(D2) Cleaning, preparing(D3) Transport, lifting(D4) Forming, cutting, shaping, fitting(D5) Treatment, drilling, boring(D6) Placing, laying & applying(D7) Making good, repairing(D8) Cleaning up(D9) Other construction operationsRequirements, properties(E) Composition(F) Shape, size(G) Appearance(H) Context, environment(J) Mechanics(K) Fire, explosion(L) Matter(M) Heat, cold(N) Light, dark(P) Sound, quiet(Q) Electricity, magnetism, radiation(R) Energy, side effects, compatability, durability(S)(T) Application(U) Users resources(V) Working factors(W) Operation, maintenance factors(X) Change, movement, stabilityfactors(Y) Economic, commercial factors(Z) Peripheral subjects: presentation, time, space40 Architect’s Pocket BookUniclassCI/SfB is being superseded by a new system called Uniclass(Unified Classification for the Construction Industry). It wasdeveloped for the Construction Project Information Committee(CPIC) and the DoE Construction Sponsorship Directorate.The project was led by consultants from the National BuildingSpecification (NBS) and is based on principles set out by theInternational Standards Organisation (ISO). The ConstructionProducts Table is based on the work of Electronic ProductInformation Co-operation (EPIC).It was designed for organizing information in libraries and pro-jects, but can also be used for structuring files in databases. It isa faceted system which allows tables to be used independentlyor in combination with each other. It can be integrated withother information systems such as the Common Arrangementof Works Sections (CAWS), Civil Engineering Standard Methodof Measurement (CESMM) and the Building Cost InformationService (BCIS) Standard Form of Cost Analysis.Uniclass consists of 15 tables:A Form of informationB Subject disciplinesC ManagementD FacilitiesE Construction entitiesF SpacesG Elements for buildingsH Elements for civil engineering worksJ Work sections for buildingsK Work sections for civil engineering worksL Construction productsM Construction aidsN Properties and characteristicsP MaterialsQ Universal Decimal ClassificationSource: RIBA Publications2PlanningPlanning and other permissionsPlanning permissionDefinitionsOriginal House: The house as it was first built, or as it stoodon 1 July 1948 if it was built before thatdate.Highway: All public roads, footpaths, bridleways andbyways.Special Area: Conservation Area, National Park, Area ofOutstanding Natural Beauty and the Norfolkand Suffolk Broads.Volume: Measured from external faces.Summary of consentsneeded for work to dwellings and related property1 Dividing off part of a house for use as a separate dwelling.2 Use of a caravan in a garden as a home for someone else.3 Dividing off part of a house for business or commercialwork.4 Providing a parking place for a commercial vehicle or taxi.5 Building something that goes against the terms of theoriginal planning permission.6 Work which might obstruct the view of road users.7 Work which will involve a new or wider access to a majorroad.8Additions or extensions to a flat or maisonette, includingthose converted from houses, excluding internal alter-ations which do not affect the external appearance.42 Architect’s Pocket BookHouse extensions9 An addition which would be nearer to any highway thanthe nearest part of the original house unless there is atleast 20 m between the extended house and the highway.10 Covering more than half the area of land around the ori-ginal house with additions or other separate buildings.11 An extension to a terrace house or a house in a SpecialArea larger than 10 per cent, or up to 50 m3, whichever isgreater, of the volume of the original house.12 An extension to any other kind of house larger than 15 percent, or up to 70 m3, whichever is greater, of the volume ofthe original house.13 An extension which is larger than 115 m3.14 An extension which is higher than the highest part of theroof of the original house.15 An extension where any part is more than 4 m high(except roof extensions) and is within 2 m of the propertyboundary.16 Any roof extension, loft conversion or dormer window in aSpecial Area17 Any extension to a roof slope which faces a highway.18 Roof extensions which would add more than 50 m3 to thevolume of the house or 40 m3 to that of a terraced house.This allowance is not in addition to, but must be deductedfrom, any other allowances set out above.Separate new buildingson the land around the house19 Any building (or structure) to be used other than fordomestic purposes or which exceeds conditions set out in9 and 10 above.20 Any building more than 3 m high, or 4 m high if it has aridged roof.21 Any building in the grounds of a Listed Building or in aSpecial Area which would be more than 10 m3.22 A storage tank for heating oil larger than 3500 litres ormore than 3 m above ground.23 A tank to store liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).Building a porch24 With an area measured externally of more than 3 m3.25 Higher than 3 m above ground.26 Less than 2 m from a road.Erecting fences, walls and gates27 If a house is a Listed Building.28 If over 1 m high where next to a road or over 2 m elsewhere.Planting hedges or trees29 If a condition was attached to the planning permission ofthe property which restricts such planting or where thesight line might be blocked.Erecting a satellite dish or antennaother than normal TV or radio aerials30 If the size exceeds 700 mm in any direction (900 mm insome outlying areas) or 450 mm if attached to a chimney.31 If it projects above the roof or chimney to which it isattached.32 If it is in addition to another antenna already installed,whether or not this has planning consent.33 If it is installed on a chimney or on the wall or roof slopefacing a highway in a Special Area.New cladding34 Cladding the outside of the house with stone, tiles, artifi-cial stone, plastic or timber in a Special Area.Driveways35 If a new or wider access is made onto a major road.Approval of the highways department of the local councilwill also be needed if a new driveway crosses a pavementor verge.Planning 43Planning permission is not required forSheds, garages, greenhouses, domestic pet houses, summerhouses, swimming pools, ponds, sauna cabins or tenniscourts, unless they contravene the conditions described in 9,10, 19, 20 and 21 above.Patios, hard standings, paths and driveways unless used forparking a commercial vehicle or taxi.Normal domestic TV and radio aerials – but see under Erectinga Satellite Dish or Antenna above.Repairs, maintenance or minor improvements such as redec-orating or replacing windows, insertion of windows, skylightsor rooflights – but see the next section on Listed Buildings andConservation Areas, where consents may be needed.Other permissionsListed BuildingsA Listed Building includes the exterior and interior of the build-ing and, with some exceptions, any object or structure withinthe curtilage of the building, including garden walls.Listed Building Consent is needed to demolish a Listed Building,or part of one, or to alter or extend it in any way inside or outwhich would affect its architectural or historic character.Check with the council first. It is a criminal offence to carry outany work without consent. No fees are required.See also p. 50.Conservation areasConsent is needed to demolish any building in a ConservationArea with a volume of more than 115 m3, or any part of suchbuilding. Consent may also be needed to demolish gates,walls, fences or railings. No fees are required.44 Architect’s Pocket BookNational Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beautyand the Broads (Special Areas)Generally permissions to carry out building work in these areasare more limited, so check with the appropriate body first.TreesMany trees have Tree Preservation Orders which mean consentis needed to prune or fell them. Trees are often protected inConservation Areas. These normally exclude fruit trees or smalldecorative trees with trunks less than 100 mm in diameter. Sixweeks’ notice is needed before any work may be carried out.Building Regulations approvalAll new building must comply with the Building Regulations.Rights of wayIf a proposed building would obstruct a public path then con-sult with the local authority at an early stage. If they agree tothe proposal then an order will be made to divert or extinguishthe right of way. No work should proceed until the order hasbeen confirmed.AdvertisingDisplaying an advertisement larger than 0.3 m2 outside aproperty may need consent. This can include house names,numbers or even ‘Beware of the Dog’. Temporary notices upto 0.6 m2 relating to local events may be displayed for a shorttime. Estate Agents’ boards, in general, should not be largerthan 0.5 m2 on each side and may be banned in ConservationAreas.WildlifeIf the proposed new building will involve disturbing roosts ofbats or other protected species, then English Nature (EN), theCountryside Council for Wales (CCW) or Scottish NaturalHeritage (SNH), whichever is appropriate, must be notified.Source: Planning – A Guide for HouseholdersPlanning 45Planning appealsConsidering an appealIt is possible to appeal against a Local Planning Authority(LPA) which has refused Planning Permission, whether outlineor full; or if they have given permission but with conditionswhich seem to the Appellant to be unreasonable; or if a deci-sion has not been made within the time laid down, which isnormally 8 weeks. However, before lodging an appeal, theAppellant should consider modifying the scheme to suit theLPA. Generally if such a scheme is presented within 1 year ofthe refusal date, no extra planning fee is requested. Appealsshould be a last resort. They take time and cost money. Mostappeals are not successful. Proposals should fit in with theLPA’s development plan for the area. Permission is unlikely tobe given for development on green-belt land or on goodquality agricultural land, or for access to main roads.Inspectors judge appeals on their planning merit. They areunlikely to be swayed by personal considerations.Making an appealAppeals must be lodged within 6 months of the date of thedecision. The Secretary of State (SoS) can accept a late appeal,but will do so only in exceptional circumstances. Appeals arenormally decided on the basis of written representations and avisit to the site by the planning inspector. However, where theAppellant or the LPA do not agree to this procedure, then theinspector can arrange for a Hearing or a Local Inquiry. Forms,whether for appealing against Planning Permission, ListedBuilding Consent or Conservation Area Consent, should beobtained from the Planning Inspectorate in England andWales, the Scottish Executive (SEIRU) in Scotland and thePlanning Appeals Commission in Northern Ireland.Written representationThe appeal form, with documents and plans, shouldbe sentto the Planning Inspector (PI) with copies of all papers alsosent to the LPA. The LPA will send their report to the PI, copiesof which will be sent to the Appellant, who is allowed to make46 Architect’s Pocket Bookcomments. The PI may contact interested people such asneighbours and environmental groups for their comments.When the Inspector is ready, a site visit is arranged. This maybe an unaccompanied visit if the site can be viewed from pub-lic land or an accompanied visit when the site is on privateland and where both the Appellant and the LPA are present.HearingsHearings are less formal and cheaper than a local inquiry andlegal representatives are not normally used.Local inquiryThis procedure is used if the LPA and the Appellant cannotdecide on a written representation and the PI decides a hear-ing is unsuitable.Written statements made by the LPA and the Applicant aresent to the PI with copies to one another.Details of the inquiry must be posted on the site, and the LPAwill inform local papers and anyone else likely to be interested.Statements or representatives may be asked for from theMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) where theproposal involves agricultural land, or the Health and SafetyExecutive (HSE) where the proposal involves the storage ofdangerous materials. All witnesses or representatives may bequestioned or cross-examined. At the inquiry, anyoneinvolved may use a lawyer or other professional to put theircase. The Inspector will make visits to the site, alone, beforethe inquiry. After the inquiry, the Appellant and the LPA mayask for a visit with the Inspector to discuss any points raisedabout the site or surroundings.CostsThe Appellant and the LPA will normally pay their own ex-penses, whichever procedure is used. However, if there is aninquiry or hearing, the Appellant can ask the LPA to pay someor all of the costs. The LPA may do likewise. The SoS will onlyagree to this if the party claiming can show that the other sidebehaved unreasonably and put them to unnecessary expense.Planning 47The decisionThe Inspector sends the decision to the Appellant with copiesto the LPA and anyone else entitled or who asked for a copy.The Inspector sends a report to the SoS with a recommenda-tion as to whether or not the appeal should be allowed. TheSoS does not have to accept the Inspector’s recommenda-tions. New evidence may put new light on the subject. Inthese cases, both parties will have a chance to commentbefore a decision is made and the inquiry may be re-opened.The High CourtThe only way an appeal can be made against the Inspector’sdecision is on legal grounds in the High Court. This challengemust be made within 6 weeks of the date of the decision. Tosucceed, it must be proved that the Inspectorate or the SoShave exceeded their powers or that proper procedures werenot followed.Source: A Guide to Planning AppealsParty wall awardsThe Party Wall Act 1996 has effect throughout England andWales and involves the following proposed building work:1 Work to an existing party wall, such as taking support for anew beam, inserting full-width DPCs, underpinning, rais-ing, rebuilding or reducing the wall.2 Building a new party wall on or astride a boundary linebetween two properties.3 Constructing foundations for a new building within 3 m ofa neighbouring building, where the work will go deeperthan the neighbouring foundations.4 Constructing foundations for a new building within 6 m ofa neighbouring building where the work will cut a linedrawn downwards at 45° from the bottom of the neigh-bour’s foundations.48 Architect’s Pocket BookNotices must be served by the building owner to the adjoiningowner or owners, which may include landlords as well as ten-ants, at least 2 months before the work starts or 1 month inadvance for new work as described in 3 and 4 above. There isno set form for the Notice, but it should include: the owner’sname and address; the address of the building (if different); fulldetailed drawings of the proposed work; and the starting date.It may also include any proposals to safeguard the fabric of theadjoining owner’s property. The adjoining owner cannot stopsomeone exercising their rights given them by the Act, but caninfluence how and when the work is done. Anyone receiving anotice may give consent within 14 days, or give a counter-notice setting out modifications to the proposals. If the adjoin-ing owner does not reply, a dispute is assumed to have arisen.The AwardWhen consent is not received the two owners agree toappoint one surveyor to act for both sides, or two surveyors,one to act for each side. Surveyors appointed must take intoaccount the interests of both owners. The surveyors draw upand supervise the Award, which is a statement laying downwhat work will be undertaken and how and when it will bedone. It should include a Schedule of Condition, whichdescribes in detail the state of the wall viewed from theadjoining owner’s side. The Award will also specify who paysthe construction costs and the surveyors’ fees – usually theowner who initiates the work. The Award is served on all rele-vant owners, each of whom is bound by the Award unlessappeals are made within 14 days to the county court.Sources: A Short Guide to the Party Wall Act 1996The Party Wall etc. Act 1996: Explanatory BookletPlanning 49Listed buildingsEnglish Heritage has the task of identifying and protectinghistoric buildings. This is done by recommending buildings ofspecial architectural or historic interest to be included onstatutory lists compiled by the Secretary of State, for NationalHeritage.Buildings may be listed because of age, rarity, architecturalmerit, method of construction and occasionally because of anassociation with a famous person or historic event.Sometimes whole groups of buildings such as a model villageor a complete square may be listed.All buildings largely in their original condition before 1700 arelikely to be listed, as are most between 1700 and 1840. Lateron the criteria became tighter with time, so that post-1945only exceptional buildings are listed.GradesListed buildings are graded as follows:Grade I buildings of exceptional interestGrade II* important buildings of more than special interestGrade II buildings of special interest warranting every effortto preserve themOf the 500 000 or so buildings currently listed, nearly 95 percent are Grade II.Listing applies to the entire building, including anything fixedto the building or in the grounds before 1 July 1948.See p. 44 for permissions needed to add, alter or demolish alisted building.50 Architect’s Pocket BookGrade I and II* buildings may be eligible for grants from EnglishHeritage, as may some Grade II buildings in conservation areas.Residential listed buildings may be VAT zero-rated forapproved alterations.For advice on how to get a building listed or other informa-tion, consult the Department of Culture, Media and Sport.For listed buildings in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales,consult Historic Scotland, CADW, and Historic Buildings andMonuments Belfast respectively.Sources: Listing Buildings – The Work of English HeritageWhat Listing means – A Guide for Owners andOccupiersPlanning 5152 Architect’s Pocket BookBuilding Regulations 2000The approved documentsThese documents are published as practical guidance to theBuilding Regulations. i .e. they are not the BuildingRegulations as such.The mandatory Requirement is highlighted in green near thebeginning of each document. The remaining text is for guid-ance only.The Building Inspectorate accept that if this guidance is fol-lowed then the requirement is satisfied. There is no obliga-tion to comply with these guidelines providing evidence isproduced to show that the relevant requirement has beensatisfied in some other way.The purpose of the BuildingRegulation is to secure reason-able standards of health, safety, energy conservation and theconvenience of disabled people.A separate system of control applies in Scotland and NorthernIreland.The regulations are published by the DTLR and are availablefrom the Stationery Office.A Structure 1992 editionA1 Loading amended 2000A2 Ground movementA3 & A4 Disproportionate collapseB Fire safety 2000 editionB1 Means of warning and escape amended 2000B2 Internal spread of fire (linings)B3 Internal spread of fire (structure)B4 External fire spreadB5 Access and facilities for the fire serviceC Site preparation and resistance to moisture 1992 editionC1 Preparation of site amended 2000C2 Dangerous and offensive substancesC3 Subsoil drainageC4 Resistance to weather and ground moistureD Toxic substances 1992 editionamended 2000Planning 53E Resistance to the passage of sound 1992 editionE1 Airborne sound (walls) amended 2000E2 Airborne sound (floors and stairs)E3 Impact sound (floors and stairs)F Ventilation 1995 editionF1 Means of ventilation amended 2000F2 Condensation in roofsG Hygiene 1992 editionG1 Sanitary conveniences and washing facilities amended 2000G2 BathroomsG3 Hot water storageH Drainage and waste disposal 2002 editionH1 Foul water drainageH2 Waste water treatment and cess poolsH3 Rainwater drainageH4 Building over sewersH5 Separate systems of drainageH6 Solid waste storageJ Combustion appliances and fuel storage 2002 editionsystemsJ1 Air supplyJ2 Discharge of products of combustionJ3 Protection of buildingJ4 Provision of informationJ5 Protection of liquid fuel storage systemsJ6 Protection against pollutionK Protection from falling, collision and impact 1998 editionamended 2000L Conservation of fuel and power 2002 editionL1 Conservation of fuel and power in dwellingsL2 Conservation of fuel and power in buildingsother than dwellingsM Access and facilities for disabled people 1999 editionM1 Interpretation amended 2000M2 Access and useM3 Sanitary conveniencesM4 Audience or spectator seatingN Glazing – safety in relation to impact, 1998 editionopening and cleaning amended 2000N1 Protection against impactN2 Manifestations of glazingN3 Safe opening & closing of windows, skylights & ventilatorsN4 Safe access for cleaning windows etcApproved document to support regulation 7 1999 editionMaterials and workmanship amended 200054 Architect’s Pocket BookConstruction Design and Management RegulationsIn the mid-1990s, fatal accidents in the construction industrywere five to six times more frequent than in other areas ofmanufacture. Also, all construction workers could expect tobe temporarily off work at least once in their working life as aresult of injury. The Construction Design and ManagementRegulations (CDM) 1994, effective from 31 March 1995,were drafted to try and improve these statistics. The regula-tions make designers responsible for making buildings ‘safelyconstructible and to provide safety information’.The purpose of the CDM Regulations can be summarizedas follows:• To ensure Health and Safety (H & S) issues are consideredfrom the beginning of a project and to consider the H & Simplications during the life of the structure in order toachieve a safe working environment during constructionand beyond.• To ensure the professionals appointed are competent tocomply with the CDM Regs. These include designers, plan-ning supervisors, contractors and sub-contractors.• To see that an H & S Plan is prepared for the constructionperiod and that an H & S File is prepared for the completedstructure.• To ensure that adequate resources are allocated to complywith the legislation imposed by the Health and SafetyExecutive (HSE).Planning SupervisorTo implement the regulations, a Planning Supervisor (PS) mustbe appointed by the client. This can be anyone competent,and may be a member of the design team, contractors oreven the client. Alternatively, architects should develop an H & S team by bringing in outside expertise or use a CDM ad-vice service. The PS must notify the HSE of the project; see thatdesigners do their CDM duty and co-operate on site safetyPlanning 55matters; prepare the H & S plan, on time, for the constructionwork, and prepare an H & S file for the client on completion.They may also, if requested by a client, advise on the appoint-ment of consultants and contractors as to their competenceand resources in regard to CDM matters. If architects are toact as Planning Supervisors they must ensure that they receivecertified HSE training, as failure to comply with the regula-tions could lead to criminal prosecution.When CDM regulations are not applicableListed below are situations where the CDM regulations neednot apply. However, the designer is still legally obliged toavoid foreseeable risks; give priority to protection for all; andinclude adequate H & S information in the design.• Minor works in premises normally inspected by the LocalAuthority, who will be the Enforcing Authority, e.g. storageof retail goods or dangerous substances, exhibition displaysof goods for sale, animal accommodation.• Work carried out for domestic householders, on their ownresidences, used solely as a private dwelling (i.e. not as anoffice as well as a home).• Work which is for 30 days or less duration and involvesfour persons or less on site and does not involve demolitionor dismantling of a structure.Source: Managing Construction for Health and SafetyCDM Regulations 199456 Architect’s Pocket BookStandards – in the construction industryEfforts are being made to harmonize standards throughoutEurope so as to open up the single market for constructionproducts. It is still something of a minefield, as harmonizationat the beginning of the twenty-first century is not complete.Listed alphabetically below are the organizations and stan-dards involved, which may help to clarify the current situation.BBA – British Board ofAgrément. This organizationassesses and tests new con-struction products and systemswhich have not yet received arelevant BS or EN. It issuesAgrément Certificates to thosethat meet their standards. The Certificate gives an indepen-dent opinion of fitness for purpose. Holders are subject to 3-yearly reviews to ensure standards are maintained. The BBArepresents the UK in the UEAtc and is designated by the gov-ernment to lead the issuing of ETAs.BSI – British Standards Institution. This was thefirst national standards body in the world. It pub-lishes British Standards (BS) which give recommend-ed minimum standards for materials, products andprocesses. These are not mandatory, but some arequoted directly in the Building Regulations (see also ENbelow). All materials and components complying with a par-ticular BS are marked with the BS kitemark together with therelevant BS number. BSI also publishes codes of practice (CP)which give recommendations for good practice in relation todesign, manufacture, construction, installation and mainte-nance, with the main objectives being safety, quality, econo-my and fitness for purpose. Drafts for Development (DD) areissued when there is insufficient information for a BS or a CP.These are similar to ENVs.Planning 57CE mark – Communauté Européennemark. This mark was introduced by theCPD, and is a symbol applied to productsby their manufacturers to indicate theircompliance with European member stateregulations. It has nothing to do withquality or safety (unlike the BS kitemark). If the CE mark has anumber attached, this signifies that the product has beenindependently tested.CEN – Comité Européen de Nationalisation (also knownas the European Committee for Standardisation). Its mainaims are to harmonize national standards; promote imple-mentation of the ISO; prepare ENs; co-operate with EFTA andother international governmental organizations and CENELEC(the electrotechnicalcounterpart of CEN). The BSI is a mem-ber of CEN.CPD – Construction Products Directive. This is a directiveproduced by the European Commission introducing the CEmark.EN – Euronorm (also known as European Standard).European Standards are published by the CEN for a widerange of materials. A full EN, known in the UK as a BS EN, ismandatory and overrules any conflicting previous BS, whichmust be withdrawn. Prospective standards where documenta-tion is still in preparation are published as European pre-standards (ENV). These are normally converted to full ENsafter a 3-year experimental period.EOTA – European Organization for Technical Approvals.Members of this organization issue ETAs. The UK is represent-ed in EOTA by the BBA. EOTA polices organizations nominat-ed by member states to make sure they all apply the sametests and level of expertise when preparing ETAs.58 Architect’s Pocket BookETA – European Technical Approval. ETAs are issued bymembers of EOTA. They are available for products whose per-formance or characteristics fall outside the scope of aEuropean Standard (EN) mandated by the EC, and are basedupon assessment methods known a ETAGs (EuropeanTechnical Approval Guidelines). Both ETAs and ENs enableproducts to which they refer to be placed in the singleEuropean market.ISO – International Organization for Standardization.This organization prepares International Standards for thewhole world. They are prefixed ISO and many are compatibleand complement British Standards. In the UK, BSs and ENsthat are approved by the ISO are prefixed BS ISO or BS EN ISO.MOAT – Method of Assessment and Testing. These arethe criteria and methods used by the BBA when testing prod-ucts. Many MOATs have been developed in consultation withthe European Agrément organizations under the aegis of theUEAtc.QA – Quality Assurance. BS EN 9001 lays down proceduresfor various organizations to conform to a specification andthus acquire QA for a production or a service.UEAtc – European Union of Agrément technical commit-tee. A technical committee to which all European Agrémentinstitutes belong, including the BBA for the UK. Its principalfunction is to facilitate trade in construction productsbetween member states, primarily through its Confirmationprocess, whereby an Agrément Certificate issued by a UEAtcmember in one country can be used to obtain a Certificate inanother.Planning 59Sustainability, energy saving and green issuesA checklist of matters which are considered relevant at thebeginning of the twenty-first century.Sustainability has been described as ‘development thatmeets the needs of the present without compromising theability of those in the future to meet their own needs’. Livingin equilibrium with the environment will become the key issuein constructing buildings. Sustainability combines social, eco-nomic and environmental goals; it involves governments, thecommercial world, communities and individuals.Local planning should integrate housing with workplacesand shops to reduce the need for CO2 (carbon dioxide) emit-ting transport. Ideally the site should be reasonably level topromote walking and bicycling. Hills might be used for windfarms and, where possible, land set aside for local food pro-duction. Facilities should be provided for the collection ofmaterials for recycling.Transport is responsible for at least 30 per cent of all UKCO2 emissions. To discourage the use of fossil-fuelled privatecars, sites should be close to public transport routes. Walkingdistances to bus stops should ideally be within 300 m. Electriccars and buses offer the possibility of zero CO2 emissions ifthe electricity is supplied from renewable sources. The electricbicycle is at present the most efficient mode of transport,using only 0.01 kWh per passenger kilometre as opposed to0.39 kWh for a 1.1 litre petrol car. The provision of dry andsecure bicycle storage will encourage cycling.The design of buildings in the UK should maximize solargain by incorporating thermal mass and by making windowsface south or not more than 30° either side of south.Openings on north and north-eastern sides should be kept toa minimum to conserve heat. Guard against heat losses atnight from large areas of glazing. The exception to this issouth-facing conservatories, which act as a source of solar60 Architect’s Pocket Bookheated air, which can reduce the demand for back-up spaceheating. South-facing glazing should ideally be unshaded inwinter from 9 am to 3 pm. Therefore nothing should obscureit within an altitude angle of 10°. In summer, solar shading isneeded to reduce the demand for mechanical ventilation.Optimize thermal efficiency with the use of good insulation,triple glazing and airtight detailing.Services, carefully designed, can play a major role in energyconservation. Low energy design can include on-site genera-tion of heat and power with solar collectors, photovoltaiccells and windmills – systems that produce no CO2 and onceinstalled are cheap to run.Use radiant heat rather than warm-air systems. Use gas-fuelled condensing boilers for space heating. Where possible,reclaim heat wasted from cookers and refrigerators.Hot water systems should be designed to avoid long heat-wasting pipe runs.Domestic controls should include individual thermostatic radi-ator valves; 7-day programmers with separate settings forspace heating and hot water; outside sensors and boiler ener-gy managers (BEMs).Avoid air conditioning – it is seldom necessary in the UKexcept for very special atmospheric or conservation needs.Use natural ventilation or passive stack ventilation systemswith humidity control intakes and extracts. Alternatively, usea mechanical ventilating system with heat recovery. Avoidexcessive air changes, a potential source of heat loss.In considering lighting, optimize daylight by making sure glaz-ing is regularly cleaned and that as many workstations as pos-sible are positioned near windows. Choose efficient lumi-naires with low energy or high frequency fluorescent lamps.In large buildings install occupancy sensors to turn off lightswhen not required.Provide operating and maintenance manuals for occupants tooperate all systems as efficiently as intended. Considerinstalling monitor systems to maintain and improve efficiency.Water consumption is rising in the UK and global warmingappears to be reducing rainfall, so the need to conserve wateris imperative. Careful consumption can also reduce operatingcosts. Devices to conserve water include leak detectors, con-trol devices, flow regulators and the recycling of rainwaterand grey water.Rainwater collection for recycling or garden watering canrange from simple butts to underground tanks with filtersand submersible pumps supplying water back to points ofuse.Grey water from baths, showers and washbasins (not kitchenwastes, because of grease and food particles) can be collect-ed in sealed storage vessels and pumped to header tanks,treated with disinfectant and recycled back to WC and urinalcisterns. A mains connection to the header tank will still beneeded to ensure sufficient water is always available.Appliances should be chosen with minimum water consump-tion in mind. WC cisterns can be dual-flush or have low volumeflushing. Older cisterns can be filled with volume reducers.Infra-red sensors can be fitted to urinal cisterns. Public wash-basins can be fitted with electronic taps, push-top taps orinfra-red controlled taps. All taps should have aerating filters.Showers with low flow (max 6 l/min) heads use less waterthan baths. Washing machines and dishwashers should be fit-ted with flow and pressure limiter restrictors if fed by mainscold water and also to the hot supply if the water is suppliedfrom a combination heating boiler.Other water saving strategies include installing water meters,replacing washers and seatings on dripping taps, and repair-